PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 1080
property. The first description, the 'miri,' or Crown lands, which form the hargest portion of the territory of the Sultan, are held direct from the Crown. The Government grants the right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of certain fees, but continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over the land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years it is forfeited to the Crown. The second form of tenure, the 'vacouf,' was instituted originally to provide for the religion of the State and the education of the people, by the erection of mosques and schools ; but this object has been set aside, or neglected, for several generations, and the 'vacouf lands have mostly been seized by Government officials. The third class of landed property, the 'mulikaneh,' was granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in recompense for the military service reciuired of them, and is hereditary, and exempt from tithes. The fourth form of tenure, the 'miilk,' or freehold property, does not exist to a great extent. Some house property in the towns, and of the land in the neighbourhood of villages, is 'miilk,' which the peasants purchase from time to time from the Government.
Only a small proportion of arable land is under cultivation, owing prin- cipally to the want of roads and means of conveyance, which preclude the possibility of remunerative exportation.
The system of levying a tithe on all produce leaves no inducement to the farmer to grow more than is re(iuired for his own use, or in his immediate l)roximity. The agricultural development of the country is further crippled by custom dues for the exportation of produce from one ]»rovince to another.
The svstem of agriculture is most primitive. The soil for the most part is very fertile ; the principal products are tobacco, cereals of all kinds, cotton, figs, nuts, almonds, grapes, olives, all varieties of fruits. Coffee, madder, opium, gums are largely exported. It is estimated that 44 million acres of the Empire in Europe and Asia are under cultivation. The forest laws of the empire are based on those of France, but restrictive regulations are not enforced, and the country is being rapidly deprived ot its timber. About 21 million acres are under forest, of which 3^ million acres are in European Turkey. Turkey is a wine-growing country, the total production being estimated at about a million hectolitres annuall}'. Of this amount about 160,000 hectolitres are exported — chielly for mixing. The culture of silkworms, which had fallen off considerably, owing to disease among the worms, is again becoming im- portant. In the provinces of Broussa, Pandemia, and Ismidt the production of cocoons in 1895 was equivalent to 3,439,984 kilogrammes of fresh cocoons, valued at 45,495,044 piastres ; in 1896, 5,386,119 kilogrammes, valued at 58,568,561 piastres ; in 1897, 4,500,000 kilogrammes. Most of the silk produced is exported, but some is used in the manufacturing of native dress juaterial. The quantity of opium produced in 1896 was estimated at about 4,000 chests of 50 to 60 okes ; in 1897, about 8,000 chests ; in 1898, about 3,500 chests. The production of oil of roses in 1895 was about 500,000 metikal (208 metikal = 1 kilogramme) ; in 1896, about 780,000 metikal ; in 1897, about 500,000 metikal; in 1898, about 400,000 metikal, or 2,000 kilogrammes.
The mining laws of the empire are restrictive, though the country is rich in minerals, coal, copper, lead, silver, iron, manganese, chrome, bitumen, sulphur, salt, alum ; coal especially is abundant, but hardly worked. A royalty of 20 per cent, is paid on all nnnerals exported. There is a good deal of brass-turning and beating of copper into utensils for household purposes. Concessions have also been granted for glass manufactories, paper mills, and textile looms. Carpets, which constitute a considerable article of export
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