ACJE 181 puberty, which forms a marked transition, closing the first general phase of ascending progress. Here youth, properly defined, begins, and lasts until the age of 20 or 21, when the physical development becomes complete ; the bones are firmly set in all their parts ; the mind is also more or less developed ; and the sexes have attained "majority " in social life. Ado- lescence is applied to the first period of adult life, from 21 to 28, and manhood to the riper period, from 28 to 35 or 36. The culminating period of physical and mental force combined is termed virility, and this may vary in differ- ent individuals, some waxing feebler soon, while others retain all their vigor from 36 to 48. The body then begins to lose its energy, and gradually declines through the descending periods of maturity and old age. The mind may still retain its power, and even acquire more knowledge and experience, but the body will not maintain so vigorous an exercise of thought and nervous action as in former years. The subdivisions of descending life are not so strongly marked, apparently, as those of the ascending phases ; but in woman's life there is a critical period called "the change of life," which corresponds inversely to that of puberty. The capability of child-bearing begins with one and ends with the other. The " critical period," however, is not so fixed as that of puberty. With some it occurs at 40 or 42, while with others it extends exceptionally to 50, 55, or 60, and in some rare instances still later, the aver- age being 45. This period of sterility is less marked and regular in man than in woman. Whatever be the length of the descending phase of life in different individuals, the ascend- ing periods are nearly uniform in their average duration. The female sex is usually more precocious than the male, and women average longer lives than men; but that is probably because they are less exposed to accident and danger in the common course of things, for the extreme cases of old age recorded are more nu- merous in males than females. Individuals be- come legally qualified for certain acts at given ages, and these vary in different countries ac- cording to the laws and institutions. A child under 10 years of age is not amenable to the laws of England for serious offences ; the pa- rents are responsible for its actions in minor cases. Above that age the offender is respon- sible, when deemed competent to distinguish between right and wrong. The age of 14 is fixed by the civil law as the age of criminal responsibility; capital punishment, however, was inflicted for murder in 1629 on a boy of 8 years of age, who had n.ost artfully concealed the body of his victim. The oath of allegiance may be taken after 12, and youths of either sex may choose a guardian at the age of 14; but no person under 21 can execute a valid will. The nubile age was fixed by the Koman law at 14 for males and 12 for females, and at these respective ages either sex may in Eng- land consent to marriage, with the approval of guardians. By the Code Napoleon, the nubile age hi France is 18 for males and 15 for fe- males, with the approval of guardians ; at 17 a person of either sex may be an executor or an executrix; and at 16 a minor may devise one half of his property. In the United States either sex may choose a guardian at 14; the nubile age is 14 for males and 12 for females. The age of majority, which gives both sexes the free disposal of themselves and their prop- erty, and the enjoyment of all civil rights be- longing to their sex and condition, is 21 in the United States, Great Britain, and modern European countries generally ; but in ancient Home minority continued till the age of 25. Some philosophers believe that, under well devised rules of conduct and favorable exter- nal conditions, the natural period of human life might be extended to 100 years, in lieu of the " threescore years and ten " of the Bible; and M. Flourens, a French physiologist of high standing, has published a work in which he treats of " human longevity " as dependent upon human prudence mainly, and easily prolonged by care to the limit of 100 years. The ages of the patriarchs before the flood have been a subject of critical dispute. With the exception of Enoch, whom " God took " at the age of 365, they are all represented in the Bible to have lived seven or eight centuries. Methuse- lah's age was 969, which is the greatest on record. After the deluge life gradually grew shorter. Shem died at 600, Abraham at 175, Isaac at 180, Jacob at 147, Joseph at 110. Commentators who reject the literal interpretation of the statements concerning the earlier patriarchs suppose either that the name of each patriarch denotes a clan or family in- stead of an individual, or that the sacred biographies are allegorical. History shows that the natural term of life has varied little during some 4,000 years, and the propor- tion of extraordinary cases of longevity contin- ues much the same at present as it was in former times. The average duration of exist- ence is, however, quite another question ; and this varies with the favorable or unfavorable habits of the people with regard to industry, morality, and civilized culture. Nor has lati- tude or longitude much to do with the dura- tion of life, either with regard to average, or natural, or extraordinary periods; for hi all latitudes and longitudes, where natural condi- tions are otherwise equally favorable, natural, exceptional, and average periods maintain re- spectively a similar ratio. The average dura- tion of life hi Europe, according to statistical calculations, lies somewhere between 26 and 33 years ; the highest average occurs in coun- tries where wealth, commerce, and civilization are most generally diffused ; the lowest where poverty and ignorance and despotism prevail. These facts have been carefully observed in our times by life insurance companies, as the basis of commercial calculations. In England the rate of mortality is said to be 2i per cent, per
