16 ABDUL- AZIZ ABDUL-MEDJID duce an irritation and subsequent inflammation of the membrane ; and this inflammation, spreading in every direction over the contigu- ous surfaces of the peritoneum, becomes so ex- tensive and violent as almost invariably to pro- duce fatal consequences. Nevertheless, surgi- cal operations in which the cavity of the abdomen is opened, but in which care is taken to prevent the escape or dissemination of irri- tating substances, have often been performed with a successful result. Sudden and power- ful blows upon the abdomen, especially in the region of the epigastrium, are also sometimes fatal, even when none of the internal organs are lacerated, owing to the depressing influ- ence of the shock upon the nervous system. ABDUL-AZIZ, sultan of Turkey, second son of Mahmoud II., born Feb. 9, 1830. He succeed- ed his brother Abdul-Medjid, June 25, 1861. Like all heirs to the Turkish throne, his life until his accession was passed in seclusion, and little is known of him during that period ex- cept that he was fond of agricultural studies, and established a model farm at Scutari. On mounting the throne he was prodigal with promises of reform, dismissed the corrupt minister of finance, Riza Pasha, reduced his civil list, got rid of the seraglio, declared that he would not indulge in polygamy, and seemed to take a lively interest in ameliorating the condition of the people, and in purging public affairs from fraud and corruption. His inten- tions were excellent, and he was determined to give to his empire the benefits of European civilization. Hence his journey to France, England, and Austria in 1867, which tended to make him popular in those countries, but alienated from him the sympathies of ortho- dox Mussulmans. Disregarding the fanatical spirit of the opposition, he allowed foreigners, for the first time in Turkey, to hold real estate, established a public high school after a French model, enriched the capital with various scien- tific institutions, and endeavored to place the administration of justice upon a more solid basis by ordering the supreme court (1869) to draw up a civil code. In many respects, how- ever, his good intentions were soon overborne by opposition, the power of ancient usages, and his own weakness. He recognized the in- dependence and unity of Italy, negotiated treaties of commerce with England and France, crushed rebellion in Montenegro (1862) and in Crete (1868), and signed in 1871 the treaty of London deneutralizing the Black sea. He tol- erated the accession to the Roumanian throne of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern as a mat- ter of policy, but found much trouble in his relations with Egypt. In 1866, in considera- tion of a vast sum of money, he had, contrary to the Mohammedan law, granted to Ismail Pasha the right of succession to the viceregal throne in a direct line from father to son, while, instead of the title of viceroy, that of khedive was conferred upon mm. A similar change was proposed for Turkey ,po as to ena- ble Yusuf, the eldest son of Abdul-Aziz, bora in 1857 before his accession to the throne, to succeed him, contrary to the ancient institu- tions of the empire ; but it was found imprac- ticable, and the presumptive heir is conse- quently the sultan's eldest nephew, Mehemet Murad, born in 1840. Besides Yusuf, the sul- tan has four recognized children : Sultana Sa- likhe, born in 1862; Mahmoud Jemil, born in the same year; Mehmed Selim, 1866; and Abdul-Medjid, 1868. ABDl'L-MEDJID, sultan of Turkey, born April 23, 1823, died June 25, 1861. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father Mah- moud II., July 1, 1839. Educated in the seclu- sion of the seraglio, his weak and almost femi- nine character, his kind disposition, his love of pleasure, his inexperience and want of knowledge, seemed to render him utterly unfit to rule. Mehemet Ali having a second time rebelled, his son Ibrahim had routed the Turk- ish army near Nizib, June 24, 1839, and was on his march against Constantinople, where a strong party was secretly conspiring to elevate him to the throne. At the same time the capu- dan pasha or grand admiral betrayed his trust by surrendering the entire fleet to Mehemet Ali. The intervention of England and the German powers checked the Egyptian designs, and by the treaties of July 15, 1840, and July 13, 1841, Turkey was formally admitted into the political system of Europe. The personal share of Abdul-Medjid in all these proceedings was very small indeed. During the earlier years of his reign he was scarcely more than a puppet in the hands of others ; but he be- came keen enough to discern the purposes of his advisers, while his benevolent disposition made him anxious to do justice and to pro- mote the welfare of his subjects. On Nov. 3, 1839, acting under the advice of Reshid Pasha, he convoked all the grand officers of the em- pire, the sheiks of the dervises, the three patri- archs of the Christian sects, the three high rabbis of the Jews, the foreign diplomats, the ulemas and mollahs, the trustees of all corpo- rations at Constantinople, and citizens gene- rally, around the pavilion of Gulhane in the imperial park, and there promulgated the Ifatti-Sherif or fundamental law, the bill of rights, intended to be the basis of a political reconstruction. Equality before the law was . guaranteed to all subjects of the sultan, with- out distinction of creed or nationality; an equitable mode of taxation was to be intro- duced ; a just system of conscription was also promised. More than once the Hatti-Sherif was confirmed and repeated in new decrees ; and in 1845 the sultan went so far as to call a kind of congress, consisting of representatives from different provinces of the empire. A board of education was instituted in 1845, and a system of free public schools established in 1846. On Feb. 18, 1856, the Hatti-Humayun was published, being the draught of a liberal constitution. While from 1840 to 1853 almost
