420 EDUCATION be noticed that the above described supervision by the government applies only to the lower grade of schools in England and Wales, apd only to such as choose to comply with the con- ditions laid down. Higher instruction is af- forded by the great body of endowed schools, including grammar schools and colleges, and by the universities. In the former, which are the middle schools of England, students are fitted for the universities. They are attended largely by the wealthier classes ; and the stu- dies are chiefly classical. In England there are the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, and London ; there are four in Scot- land, and two in Ireland. The most famous of these are Oxford and Cambridge, which have been richly endowed by the government and by individuals. Both are corporations com- prising numerous colleges (Oxford 24, Cam- bridge 17), each college being a distinct organi- zation with its own governing body. Instruc- tion is administered by tutors, and examinations are held for degrees. In 1869 a bill was passed bringing all the educational endowments of England under the supervision of the depart- ment of education. The educational interests of Ireland are under the supervision of a board of commissioners for national education; but there is no educational division of the country, and no public tax for school purposes. Parlia- mentary grants are made in aid of popular edu- cation on certain conditions, and a vigorous sys- tem of inspection by government commissioners prevails. The parliamentary grants for popu- lar education amounted in 1872 to 430,390. The Swedish system embraces the usual class- es of schools. A folk slcola, or school for the common people, is required to be main- tained in each soclcen or parish, of which there are more than 2,000. Instruction is gratuitous, the schools being supported by di- rect government grants and local taxation. Children between the ages of 9 and 15, who are not otherwise receiving instruction, must attend these schools, under penalty of separa- tion from their parents ; but this is seldom en- forced. A prominent feature in the manage- ment of these schools is the power vested in the clergy. Educational matters in a parish are controlled by the church meeting (IcyrTco- stamma), which is presided over by the pastor and composed of tax-paying parishioners who belong to the established church. Inspectors are appointed by the ecclesiastical department, on the recommendation of the bishop of. the diocese in which they are to act. In the se- lection of teachers special regard is paid to their religious sentiments. Where fixed schools are impracticable, "ambulatory" schools have been provided for, whose teachers travel from one farm to another, instructing the children of the peasants. In the folk schools promi- nence is given to religious instruction (Biblical history and the catechism), drawing, singing, military exercises, and gymnastics. There are 10 higher folk schools designed to afford a somewhat more advanced course of study to children of the common classes. The studies are proposed by the parents and teachers, and determined by the bishop and rector. The state annually appropriates 1,000 rix dollars ($265) for each school. Tuition is gratuitous. Between the folk school and the university are the higher elementary, the lower elementary, the pedagogical schools, and the normal schools. There are 31 schools for higher elementary in- struction, one or more being established in every stift or diocese, sustained by appropria- tions out of the state treasury. These institu- tions afford complete preparation for the uni- versity, corresponding to the gymnasia of Ger- many and the grammar schools of England. There are two courses of study, the classical and the practical, and seven annual classes. The power of appointing all the teachers of these schools is virtually with the bishops. Each school has a principal called the rector, who is assisted by about five lecturers or teachers, who must at least have had the de- gree of master of arts before appointment ; there are also from seven to fifteen assistants, who must be graduates of the university, be- sides three or more teachers of music, draw- ing, military tactics, and gymnastics. Each school has an inspector who is appointed by the bishop. The usual fee paid by each pupil is about 10 rix dollars ($2 60) for the term of eight months. The lower elementary schools differ from those above described chiefly in the number of classes. Each school has an in- spector, a rector, and from one to five assist- ant teachers, all appointed by the bishop. A small tuition fee is paid. The pedagogical schools are inferior to the lower elementary. These are in the smaller towns, are exclusively for boys, and are supported by appropriations out of the state treasury. There are nine nor- mal schools, seven for males and two for fe- males. Instruction is gratuitous; the course is three years. To each is attached a school for practising the art of teaching. The private schools of Sweden are under the same inspec- tion that the government requires for elemen- tary schools. With the exception of one semi- nary and two normal schools for the training of female teachers, no provision exists for the in- struction of girls beyond what is afforded in the folk schools. Sweden has two ancient and famous universities : that of Upsal, with 100 professors and tutors and about 1,500 students, and that of Lund, with 75 professors and tutors and about 500 students. In the former the course of study varies from three to six years, the faculties being the same as in the German universities. All public lectures are free. The other educational institutions of Sweden em- brace folk high schools for the instruction of children and adults in business, politics, and the duties of life ; an institution for the deaf, dumb, and blind in Stockholm; agricultural institutes and schools, which receive some aid from the government, but are principally self-
