PARMA congress of Mantua restored it to Pope Julius II. After being for a while occupied by the French under Francis I., it was in 1545 be- stowed by Pope Paul III. upon his natural son Pietro Luigi Farnese, whose successors held the duchies of Parma and Piacenza till 1731, when the male line became extinct. Eliza- beth Farnese, the wife of Philip V. of Spain, now obtained the duchies as a fief for her son Don Carlos ; but when he became king of the Two Sicilies they were annexed to Austria. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) gave the duchies, along with Guastalla, to Don Philip, brother of Don Carlos. Philip was succeeded in 1765 by his son Ferdinand, who was permitted to retain the territories even after the French invasion and until 1801, when the treaty of Lune" ville gave to his son Louis the grand duchy of Tuscany and the title of king of Etruria, instead of his father's duchies. On Ferdi- nand's death in 1802, France incorporated them under the name of the department of the Taro, although the formal annexation of Parma and Piacenza was not effected till July, 1805, and in 1806 Guastalla was annexed to the French kingdom of Italy. The three duchies were be- stowed in 1814 upon the ex-empress of France Maria Louisa. To meet the objections of Spain a separate treaty (June, 1817) vested the suc- cession to the ducnies on Maria Louisa's death in the descendants of the infanta of Spain (the queen of Etruria), who in the interval became ruler of Lucca ; but after the extinction of the house of Lucca the duchy of Piacenza was to revert to Sardinia and Parma to Austria, which latter power was in the mean time authorized to retain all the territory on the left bank of the Po and to garrison the fortress of Piacenza. Maria Louisa left Parma in consequence of the revolutionary movements in 1846, and after her death in December, 1847, Duke Charles of Lucca reigned in Parma and Piacenza till the revolution of 1848, when the country was for a short time occupied by Sardinian troops. The defeat of Charles Albert soon restored the duke, who resigned in favor of his son Charles III. in 1849. The latter was assassi- nated in March, 1854, and his minor son Rob- ert succeeded him under the regency of his mother, a sister of the count de Chambord, whose administration was not unpopular. The victories of the allied French and Sardinians in 1859 put an end to the rule of the house of Lucca. Parma and Piacenza became part in 1860 of the kingdom of Sardinia, and in 1861 of that of Italy, forming now two distinct prov- inces. (See FAENESE.) II. A city, capital of the province, 12 m. S. of the Po and 70 m. S. E. of Milan ; pop. in 1872, 45,511. The river Parma passes through the city, and is crossed by three bridges. Parma is divided into two almost equal parts by the Via ^Emilia. The most celebrated building is the Farnese palace, containing a large theatre and the academy of sciences, valuable collections, and a library with 140,000 volumes. In a hall of the li- PARMENIO 121 brary is one of Correggio's frescoes. The pal- ace contains also a museum of antiquities and the public printing establishment, where more than 50,000 of Bodoni's models of types are preserved. There are three other notable pal- aces in the city. The cathedral is an impo- sing edifice in the Lombard style, with Cor- reggio's " Assumption of the Virgin " and oth- er fine works. The church of Madonna della Steccata is built after the model of St. Peter's, and contains "Moses" and other paintings by Parmigiano, and tombs of the Farnese family. San Giovanni Evangelista has also good works of art. The baptistery, built between 1196 and 1281, is one of the most splendid in Italy; it is built entirely of red and gray Veronese marble, is encircled with four tiers of open galleries outside, and has a painted dome. The university contains an observatory and cabinet of natural history. It was attended in 1875 by upward of 300 students. A superior school of engraving was established in 1860. In the S. E. part of the city are the citadel and the botanic gar- dens. Parma is a city of palaces and beautiful gardens, but singularly lifeless except during the annual fair in June for the sale of silk, the principal article of trade. The construc- tion of the Via ^Emilia gave to Parma some importance under the Romans, but it was de- vastated by Mark Antony in 43 B. C. A set- tlement of Goths was formed here by Gratian in A. D. 377. During the middle ages it rose to importance among the capitals of Italy, and it was exceedingly brilliant under some of the princes of the house of Farnese. Petrarch re- sided here in 1341-'2, and Amadio Ronchini published on occasion of the celebration of the poet's anniversary in 1874 La dimora del Pe- trarca in Parma (Modena, 1874). PARMA, Alessandro Farnese, duke of. See FAENESE. PARMEGIANO. See PABMIGIANO. PARMENFDES, a Grecian philosopher, born in Elea in Italy about 513 B. C. He was the instructor of Empedocles and Zeno. He went to Athens at the age of 65, and Plato called him "the great," and Aristotle deemed him the chief of the Eleatics. His philosophical opinions (see ELEATIO SCHOOL) are embodied in a hexameter poem " On Nature," fragments of which have been published by Fillleborn (Zurich, 1795), by Peyron (Leipsic, 1810), and by Karsten in Philosophorum Grcecorum Vete- rum BeliquicB (Brussels, 1835). PARMMIO, a Macedonian general, born about 400 B. C., killed in 330. He was the favorite of Philip of Macedon. He defeated the Illy- rians in 356, upheld the Macedonian influence in Euboea in 342, and in 336 was sent with an army into Asia. When Alexander invaded Asia, he was made second in command, and led the left wing in the battles of the Granicus, Issus, and Arbela. While the king was pur- suing Darius in Parthia and Hyrcania, he com- pleted the subjugation of Media ; but in the mean time his son Philotas was accused of con-
