11 the state. Many of the prisons contain from 300 to 500 cells. The largest are in New York, that at Auburn having 1,292 cells, and Sing Sing 1,200. The Ohio penitentiary at Columbus has 1,110 cells, and that of Illinois at Joliet 1,000. These institutions, however, as well as those in other states, frequently re- ceive a greater number of convicts than they have cells. The total number of cells in all the state prisons is about 16,000. Some of them are intended for two or more prisoners. Their average dimensions are 8 ft. long, 4J- ft. wide, and 7J ft. high, giving for the aver- age contents of each about 240 cubic ft. Those in the Pennsylvania prisons and the prison for women in Indianapolis are much larger; in those of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts (a portion), New York, Ohio, and some other states, they are smaller. Penal or " hard " labor, as by the treadmill, the crank, the shot drill, &c., which has been so common in English prisons, hardly exists in the United States. Here the labor is industrial, of which almost every kind is practised, according to the requirements and opportunities of the lo- cality. The contract system of labor prevails exclusively in 1 9 of the state prisons, the leas- ing system in 6, state management exclusively in 9, and a mixed system in 7. Under the contract system the labor of the convicts is generally let at a fixed sum per day, which is often very small. Penologists find objections to this system on reformatory grounds, but it is generally less expensive to the government than the management of prison labor by the officers. In large prisons it is regarded by many as indispensable ; but it is thought that it can be safely dispensed with in prisons con- taining fewer than 200 convicts. According to the report of the national prison associa- tion, the total income of 29 convict prisons in 1873 was $1,413,073, including $1,328,882 earnings from labor and $84,191 from other sources, chiefly for the board of United States prisoners. The average earnings for each of the entire prison population amounted to $121 ; for each engaged in productive labor, $173. The average per capita cost of the convicts was $172. Of the 29 states that reported, 12 showed an excess of earnings over the total current expenses, including salaries, as follows: STATES. g !l - a, 3 fii llfj H a "5 "C e "eJi ii, 11 M Total income. Maine .... 146 $29 811 $85 076 $35 856 New Hampshire 82 13,067 22,106 23679 Vermont 80 13,312 14830 14380 Massachusetts 878 117,918 131,957 141 345 Rhode Island 74 8196 TO 991 11 996 Connecticut 180 24.941 25,572 26452 Maryland... 587 65,4fi6 71,104 71 104 Ohio 910 152 164 171,451 174450 Indiana (Michigan City).. " (Jeffersonville)... Michigan 854 895 616 49,748 66,806 90276 50.069 65,650 88087 57.465 67.088 91 065 Mississippi 288 43,355 43830 44230 The total excess of earnings over expenditures in these states was $85,588 ; total number en- gaged in productive labor, 6,544. The state prisons of Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, and New Jersey are also self-sustaining. Since 1873 the expenses have exceeded the earnings in the Mas- sachusetts prison. The total ordinary expendi- tures of all the state prisons were reported at $3,045,789. The most economically admin- istered prisons were those in North Carolina, where the average cost per capita was $89 ; Virginia, $99 ; and Khode Island, $101. The most expensive were Nebraska, $454 ; Nevada, $383 ; South Carolina, $376 ; Minnesota, $352 ; Wisconsin, $313 ; Oregon, $312 ; Florida, $302 ; and Arkansas, $300. In Connecticut it was $128; Indiana, Michigan City $140, Jefferson- ville$170; Maine, $200; Massachusetts, $193 ; New. York, Auburn $161, Sing Sing $274; Ohio, $167. Disciplinary agencies in prison management may be divided into two classes, deterrent and reformatory, the former com- prising punishments and the latter rewards, secular and religious instruction, industrial training, &c. Extreme physical punishments, by the lash, rod, strait jacket, stocks, shackles, handcuffs, ball and chain, and shower bath, are still found in the codes, if not the prac- tice, of many states. These punishments are applied only as a last resort, and in many of the states mentioned are rarely, and in some perhaps never, put into practice. In many of the other states they are expressly forbidden by law. Public whipping still exists in Dela- ware. The most common punishments are the dark cell with reduced rations, deprivation of privileges, &c. The rewards are usually petty privileges, as the use of tobacco, a light in the cell, and better food. In a few prisons the convict is allowed a share of his earnings, and in many by good conduct may abbreviate the term of his imprisonment. By recent laws of Ohio and some other western states, the con- vict will be restored to citizenship if he passes the entire period of his sentence without vio- lating the rules of the prison. The pardon- ing power is generally vested in the governor ; civil rights are usually restored by pardon. The percentage of prisoners pardoned in 1873, exclusive of those discharged by commutation, was 5-J-. Most of the prisons have chaplains ; in nearly all weekly religious services are held, and many have Sunday schools and frequent prayer meetings. The provisions for the intel- lectual improvement of prisoners are very in- adequate, but have been considerably enlarged in recent years. Libraries are common, 33 prisons in 1873 reporting 50,663 volumes, an average of 1,535 to each ; and in some prisons the convicts have the benefit of schools, indi- vidual instruction in their cells, and lectures. Secular instruction is regularly afforded in the prisons of California, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, New York, New Hampshire, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Isl- and, and Wisconsin. In some of these states a
