490 RUSSIA Nevski (1247-'63), at first prince of Novgo- rod, which state had remained almost inde- pendent of the Mongols, won signal victories over the Swedes, Livonians, and Lithuanians on the Neva (hence his surname). With refer- ence to the Tartar invaders, a better era began only with Ivan (John) I. Kalita, prince of Mos- cow (1328-'40). He united the principality of Tver with Moscow, embellished his capital with many new churches, and in 1339 began the reconstruction of the Kremlin. Some time before his death he retired into a convent and died aa a monk. He managed to keep up friendly relations with the Tartars, and thus gave the people a chance to recover their strength and to organize a new army, which, under one of his successors, Demetrius (Dimi- tri), routed the Mongols in 1378, and again in 1380 on the Don (hence his surname Donski), where 100,000 Mongols are said to have been slain. But in 1382 they again returned, burned Vladimir and Moscow, and slew in the latter city alone 24,000 inhabitants. Demetrius was obliged to purchase peace by heavy sacrifices, after which he took revenge on the Russian princes to whose defection he owed his last defeat, and all of them save the prince of Tver were subjected to his rule. The power of the grand principality (improperly called grand duchy) of Moscow was greatly increased du- ring the reign of Basil (Vasili) II. (1389-1425) by the incorporation of Nizhni Novgorod and Suzdal, and under Basil III. (1425-'62) by the incorporation of Ilalicz, Mozhaisk, and Borovsk. During the reign of the latter the metropol- itan Isidore of Kiev took part in the general council of Florence (1439), and subscribed to the act of union of the Greek and Latin church- es ; but Basil disapproved this step, and or- dered Isidore to be thrown into prison, whence after some years he escaped into Italy. A new period in the history of Russia begins with its entire deliverance from the rule and influence of the Mongols through Ivan III., surnamed the Great (1462-1505). Having strengthened his power by a victory over the khan of Kazan, whom he made tributary in 1469, and by the conquest and annexation of Novgorod, Perm, and Pskov, he declared to the ambassadors of the Mongols that Russia would henceforth cease to pay them tribute, and successfully resisted their renewed invasion. He then conquered and annexed several more Russian principalities, and a part of Siberia in 1499. But in a war against the Livonians, who were aided by the Teutonic knights, he was totally routed in 1501, and was compelled to conclude a truce for six years, and a little later a peace for 50 years. He married Sophia, a princess of the late imperial house of Constantinople, and, by right of his consanguinity to that house, adopted the double-headed eagle for his escutcheon. He improved the laws, regulated the public taxes, and was the first who assumed the title of autocrat of all the Russias. Under the reign of Basil IV. (1505-'83), the last semi- independent principality ceased by the final in- corporation of Pskov in 1510. The hereditary war of the Russians against Lithuania, which had become united with Poland under the Ju- gellos, was carried on by him with varying success; but the Tartars of Kazan were com- pletely routed in 1524 and 1530 and made trib- utary. His son Ivan IV. (1533-'84) soon re- stored order by cruel energy, and history has surnamed him the Terrible. Yet he contrib- uted more to the greatness of Russia than any of his predecessors. In 1545 he created a standing army, called the strieltzi (archers), in 1552 reconquered Kazan, whose ruler du- ring his minority had made himself indepen- dent, in 1553 opened a commercial road to Archangel, in 1554 subdued Astrakhan, made successful campaigns in Livonia and Esthouia, and in 1570 united the country of the Don with his empire. In 1581-'2 a Cossack free- booter, Yermak Timofeyeff, conquered for him Siberia. But his attempt to drive the Teutonic knights out of Livonia failed, because the Ger- mans, Poles (under Stephen Bathori), Danes, and Swedes united against him ; and at the peace, concluded in 1582, he had to cede Livonia to Sweden. He greatly encouraged commerce, concluded commercial treaties with England, called many foreigners, especially Germans and Englishmen, into his empire, and in 1569 established a printing office in Moscow. In Novgorod, which he hated on account of the free spirit of the citizens, he put more than 60,000 men to death in 1570, adding to the slaughter the most exquisite tortures. Similar scenes occurred in Tver and Moscow. Finally, however, struck with re- morse, he intended to abdicate and retire into a convent, but died before this design could be executed. His son Feodor (or Fedor) I. (1584- '98) was weak in mind and body, and, accord- ing to an order of his father, was assisted in the government by a state council. In 1588 his brother-in-law Boris Feodorovitch Godu- noff, a man of great talents but immoderate ambition, obtained the sole control of state affairs. He aspired to the throne, and many of his rivals and several members of the im- perial family were exiled or poisoned. Feodor himself is believed to have died of poison, and with him the house of Rurik became extinct. Boris Godunoff was called by the boyars to the throne. He established serfdom, but his reign was in many respects beneficent; law was im- partially administered, arts and trades encour- aged, many intelligent foreigners called into the empire, and the enlightenment of the peo- ple promoted. Yet civil war, cruelty against the boyars, and a terrible famine in 1601, by which in Moscow alone upward of 100,000 persons perished, created great dissatisfaction. An impostor, who claimed to be Demetrius the son of Ivan, and was aided by Polish magnates, stirred up a rebellion, and, after the sudden death of Boris Godunoff in 1605, dethroned Feodor, the son of the latter, and was himself
