TOUKNEFORT having espoused the Protestant cause, it was heroically though unsuccessfully defended in 1581 by Marie de Lalaing, princess of Epinoy, against the duke of Parma. It was conquered by Louis XIV. in 1667, and fortified by Vau- ban. The treaty of Utrecht (1713) gave it to Austria, but it was again under French rule from 1745 to 1748. The fortifications have recently been demolished. TOURiWORT, Joseph Pitton de, a French bot- anist, born in Aix, June 5, 1656, died in Paris near the close of 1708. After extensive stud- ies and explorations he became in 1683 pro- fessor at the jardin -des plantes, and was ad- mitted to the academy of sciences in 1692. In 1700 he was sent by Louis XIV. on a scien- tific expedition to the Levant. He returned in 1702, and was subsequently professor of medi- cine in the college de France. Linnaeus has preserved several of his classifications. His works include Elements de botanique (3 vols., Paris, 1694; new ed. of his Latin translation, with A. de Jussieu's additions, including his corollarium or classification of his vast collec- tions, 3 vols., Lyons, 1719; English transla- tion, 2 vols., London, 1719-'30); Histoire des plantes qui naissent aux environs de Paris, avec leurs usages dans la medecine (1698; en- larged ed. by Jussieu, 2 vols., 1725; English translation by Martyn, 2 vols., London, 1732); and Voyage du Levant (2 vols., 1717; English, 3 vols., 1741). TOURS (anc. Cimtas Turonum and Ccesaro- dunum), a city of France, capital of the de- partment of Indre-et-Loire, chiefly on a tongue of land between the Loire and the Cher, 120 m. S. W. of Paris ; pop. in 1872, 43,368. The bridge over the Loire is one of the finest in France. A handsome street traverses the town, and contains a marble statue of Des- cartes, who was born near Tours. Only two towers remain of the celebrated cathedral of St. Martin of Tours, destroyed in 1793. The palace of the resident archbishop is of uncom- mon beauty. The town hall has a large public library and remarkable manuscripts. Cloth, carpets, silks, and many other articles are manufactured. Tours was the capital of the ancient tribe of Turones, under the Eoman emperors of the latest period of Gallia Lugdu- nensis III., and lastly of Touraine. A number of important councils were held here, and the states general of France were repeatedly as- sembled here in the 15th and 16th centuries. The silk industry first arose here, and was of vast extent until the rise of Lyons. The town had a population of nearly 80,000 at the time of the revocation of the edict of Nantes, which ruined its prosperity. Several members of the government of the national defence, including Gambetta, had their seat in Tours during the siege of Paris, till Dec. 10, 1870, when they removed to Bordeaux. Tire Germans finally occupied Tours, Jan. 19, 1871. TOURV1LLE, Anne Hilarion de Cotentin, count de, a French admiral, born Nov. 24, 1642, died TOUSSAINT 825 in Paris, May 28, 1701. After brilliant ex- ploits against the pirates of N. Africa, which won for him from Venice the title of pro- tector of commerce, Louis XIV. appointed him in 1667 naval commander. In 1676 he decided the victory of Agosta, and in 1677, off Palermo, he nearly destroyed the allied squadrons of Spain and Holland. After va- rious other achievements he became in 1689 vice admiral of the Levant. In 1690, opera- ting against the English and Dutch off Beachy Head, he pursued the former to the mouth of the Thames, where he destroyed many of their ships and transports. In 1691, as command- er of the ocean fleet, he enabled the French troops to reach Ireland in aid of James II. In 1692, by positive order from Louis XIV., at the head of 44 ships, he engaged off the fort of La Hogue, on the E. coast of Coten- tin, the English admiral Russell, whose forces were nearly double, and, after 12 hours of de- termined resistance, was defeated, but escaped to port with the remains of his fleet. In 1693 he was appointed marshal, and in the same year he captured 27 Dutch and English ships off Cape St. Vincent and destroyed 59. He retired after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. TOrSSAUVT, Francois Dominique, surnamed i/Ou- VEETUEE, a Haytian general, born near Cap Francois in 1743, died in the dungeon of Joux, France, April 27, 1803. His parents were both slaves, and of pure negro blood. He was a coachman, and afterward held a post of trust in connection with the sugar manufac- tory of the estate to which he belonged. He had learned to read and write from a fellow slave, and after his promotion he read consid- erably. He remained apparently contented with his lot till 1791, when the mulattoes ap- pealed to the negroes for help in enforcing their rights ; and even then, though many of the blacks rose in insurrection, Toussaint in- curred the hostility of his race by remaining quiet. But after securing the escape of the director of the estate and his family, he joint d the negro army. Toussaint, at first employed in a medical capacity, was soon appointed a brigadier general. When news came of the beheading of Louis XVI. the black leaders ac- cepted the aid of Spain, and repelled the offers of the French convention. Toussaint soon captured the entire army of Brandicourt, the general of the whites, without bloodshed, and occupied several important military posts, among them Gonaives. The English, having in 1793 invaded the island, took Port-au- Prince, while the French, the Spaniards, the mulattoes, and the blacks were all contending with each other. At this juncture Toussaint, who was already in effect the commander-in- chief of the black forces, became convinced that the only hope for Hayti lay in declaring for France, whose national legislature, while making Hayti an integral part of France, had proclaimed also the freedom of the slaves. He therefore declared his fealty to the repub-
