412
Cisterns for water-closets must contain two
alternating valves, so that while one is open
the other shall be closed, and so constructed
as not to deliver more than 1} gallons of
water ata flush. Every bath to which water
is supplied by the Corporation is provided
with a well-fitted and perfectly watertight
ground outlet-plug. No overflow pipes from
baths are allowed, except such as those above
described as detective or warning pipes.
The Corporation have lately instituted a
stamping and testing establishment, where all
kinds of fittings may be put through suitable
tests. It is open to all-comers on paying the
following fees :—Bib and stop-taps, 2d. each ;
ball-taps, 3d. ; water-closets, 6d. ; closet
cisterns, 3d.
—= =
THE PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES OF
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.—IV.
Fp HE principles already laid down in dis-
cussing the subject of window design I
will here endeavour to illustrate. This
matter of window design may hardly seem to
allow any very different treatment than
already noticed, and a writer discussing any
theory based on common-sense notions of
fitness appears to be repeating mere
truisms in inculeating certain ideas or prin-
ciples on sucha subject. But in architectural
art, as in morals, the enforcement of simple
truths seems to be necessary to aright under-
standing, the conventionality of habit and
custom being so strong as often to enslave
the mind.
The primary objects of a window being—(1)
for the admission of light, (2) for outlook, and
(3) for ventilation, we must ever look to
these in the fundamental means we employ of
fulfilling them: such as form of proportion, of
opening, and other constructive detail.
Climate, or the power of the sun in different
parts, determines in a great measure the size
and kind of light-aperture required. The
Greeks and Romans hardly knew them in the
way we do; the Greek temples were probably
lighted by a sort of clerestory, or sinking in
the roof, as suggested by Mr. Fergusson. The
Romans placed them in strict accordance
with actual wants. In south aspects they
were small and placed low to exclude solar
heat. Alberti says all windows for light
were to be placed high, but they were of rare
occurrence, and the chambers at Pompeii,
with few exceptions, had no windows, but
were lighted by the door chiefly. With
us, on the contrary, light is the most essential
element after air itself; windows form the
chief means of expression in the majority of
our buildings ; and since the introduction of
large sheets of glass and the abolition of a
window-tax, they have become more signifi-
cant than ever in our architectural art. Go
to Oxford, or any continental cities where
ancient monastic-looking buildings abound,
and the eye is at once impressed by the
austerity and extreme heaviness of the archi-
tecture, which contrasts very unfavourably with
the open light and predominant fenestration of
modern cities. Indeed, it is one distinguishing
mark of our civilisation, and I think a very
expressive one.
Window design may be considered under
two heads—First, as regards external design ;
and second, as to internal design. The
sketches I have given seem to embody the
essentials before alluded to, and much that is
common to both Medieval and Italian
examples will be found in them ; for instance,
the deeply splayed and moulded jambs and
heads, and the square-shaped heads and ex-
ternal frame-work or covering. There is much
fitness and beauty of expression in the
Medizeval window, with its label or drip mould-
ing, its tracery, and the moulded and receding
jambs or reveals, splayed to invite and assist
the inflow of the solar beams. Jere the
Classical art student may learn. Then there is
the elegant conjunction of windows, and the
useful and ornamental cover of Italian fenes-
tration, with a free and ample breadth and
THE BUILDING NEWS.
space of opening. The Medievalist can im-
prove by studying these, and also the
greater simplicity of adjustment of sashes
and casements afforded by the unobstructed
mullionless window. ‘The simplest condi-
tions of a light-aperture seem to be per-
fectly fulfilled in such an opening as in
sketch No.1, where we have an oblong pro-
portion of unobstructed opening with splayed
head and jambs. Such a form, moreover,
easily adapts itself to ordinary construction,
whereas, any curvilinear or polygonal shaped
opening, asin Fig. A, would be open to ob-
jection on that account, besides the difficulty
of fitting the sashes. A segmental-headed
opening can easily be spanned by a lintel
either of stone, terra-cotta, or some lard
impervious material or compound, while the
gentle curve assists the intromission of light
and takes off that depressive effect often
observed in straight lines ; constructionally,
too, it is stronger. The semi-circular arch
admits of greater freedoin, and is, perhaps,
the most natural form for covering an open-
ing; the introduction of an under trefoil
wonderfully enhances the effect, and this
relief can be obtained either in stone or in
the outer lining or frame of the sash (Fig. 2).
In the framing of wood sashes and
frames, curved or circular work is not to be
preferred to straight for strength or economy ;
hence it is of some importance to combine
the wstheticand the technic. Sketch 3 shows
how such a compromise may be effected by
cutting or forming the head in such a manner
as to produce a pleasing effect, while it allows
the wooden frame and sashes or casements
to be composed of straight pieces.
The recession of a window in a thick wall
may often be made pleasing, while a natural
sort of protection 1s thereby obtained for it.
The piers, or the interfenestral spaces, are
the weakest parts of outer walls, and by
thickening these parts we get this recession
combined with strength, and an easy means
of connecting windows vertically. The dreary
miles of wall and square holes which line our
towns point forcibly to the necessity of doing
something in the way of relief economically.
After the condition of a light-admitting epen-
ing has been fulfilled, protection from the
sun’s rays and inclement weather has to be
thought of. Our pediments and entablatures
of the Classic style afford us such protec-
tion, but cannot something be devised, quite,
if not more, effectual and expressive, and with
less direct inference as to origin? Why
should the ordinances or conventional
methods of Classic art be universally adopted ?
In the Gothic style we have, similarly, the
hood or label, which forms both a slight pro-
tection and a useful drip to throw off the wet.
There is no reason why either of these types,
well as they may serve their purpose, should
be invariably used. A compromise between
the two forms, avoiding the ostentation of the
one and the inadequate protection afforded
by a small label moulding, seems to be what
we require. Our freely-treated Anglicised
Italian examples occasionally show useful
modifications of this feature. Sketches 4,
5, 7, 8, 9, &c,, are indications of such treat-
ment. The protection we require may either
be obtained by recessing our windows in
splayed or ntoulded jambs and lintels, or pro-
jecting some covering, as a pediment and cor-
nice, as in No. 7 and 8. The latter method
has the advantage of throwing off the wet
more effectually, and giving greater shade in
astrong sun. I think both methods may often
be combined, and a far bolder and more ex-
pressive character be the result. (See Fig. 9.)
‘The appearance of square holes, and the
framework or ‘stuck on” look of our Clas-
sically designed windows, would then be
avoided, and greater relief be given to our
facades. There are some noticeableattempts
of this kind to be seen among recent struc-
tures—an effort to break through customary
conventionalities of art. Gothic windows
have this great superiority over ‘“ Classic”
ones—namely, that they appear to be integral
May 24, 1872. parts of the walls, or ‘‘built in,” while the latter frequently havea ‘put on” appear- ance, but if greater study were bestowed in connecting the lines of windows, either hori- zontally or vertically, by the means indicated, the ordinary Italian window would have the preference. The old Scotch Baronial style affords some good examples of ‘ built in” windows, if I may use the term, but if com- mon-sense and science are consulted, nothing in the way of precedent is wanted. Another point to be noticed in designing windows is to make them accord in form and size with their position. There is a miserable lack of discernment here. We see pointed windows close under straight mouldings, and eaves and square-headed ones in gables. Here is a radical error and sin against fitness in every sense. It requires no verbal demon- stration to prove this. Conjoined lights, as couplets and triplets, are exceptions, or any series of small openings. But this concerns more another part of our subject—‘ Com- position of Form.” Again, light-apertures should be placed with some regard to regularity both as to their relation to construction and in point of size—a mural repose being necessary. It is, or should be, obvious that after the plan of a building has been properly considered as regards the disposition of the several parts and the means of communication provided, the lighting is the most important matter ; and yet, we find an apparent disregard of this necessary element in a great many of the designs that emanate from the Gothic school, a window being placed here or there, in this corner or that nook, just as most convenient, or to please the whim of the designer, without reference to the amount of light required for the particular apartment, and, in some cases, for the mere sake of getting a window for effect. It may be said by the Gothicist that the style he uses allows the privilege of regulating his light apertures to actual requirements even in the same front, that he can place his large windows just where he requires them, and his small ones where lesser quantity of light is needed, without at all violating the har- mony of his composition by their dissimilarity or disparity of size; while the designer who takes Classic or Italian models is bound in strictness to adhere to some regular fenestral disposition or equality of opening in design- ing his windows. Now, this objection, which is one of the chiefest and most important the Gothicist can urge in favour of his style, is founded upon a misconception of real art design—a misconception of the fundamental principles I am endeavouring to illustrate, or, in other words, on the assumption that architectural art is based on an arbitrary code of expression, or on two ‘‘styles” or ‘“‘modes” of art which have been left us, and in which we fancy the whole science and creativeness of the art is centred—a farce. A simple law of use determines all such functions as windows; andif, in obedience to this law, a facade presents diversity of window-forms and sizes, irregularities of level, &c., in contravention to another law of fitness which should regulate the whole, or if such a front, by its want of harmony or homogeneity, offends against a reasonable de- mand of propriety by giving no apparent evidence for, or explanation of, its erratic character, there is defective design, an in- complete and inconsequent expression. Such inconsequent diversity of character is rampant just now in a great many designs, in which a studied irregularity and an ill-studied or haphazard arrangement are synonymous ; at least, the former is not altogether the result of well-considered plans. In our Gothic designs and buildings lately erected this diversity has shown itself, es- pecially in windows and their detail; in some instances we finda rational design for a light- aperture, but either misplaced in respect to position or spoilt by its connection with adjacent apertures. G. H. G.
