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than capital undoubtedly leads us to regard as the natural state no tax can fall upon the labourer.^[1]

Can we not say that, although Ricardo concedes the bare possibility of a rise in the standard of living, the possibility is, in his mind, not suffiently strong to influence the course of his subsequent argument; and that, although he recognises that the standard may be already higher in one country than another, he implies that in all it is but little above absolute necessaries, and that this little consists of comforts which in no rhetorical sense have become necessaries? This is the impression he gives not only to Socialists, but also to men like J. S. Mill and Cairnes.^[2] And if it be objected that Mill and Cairnes were misled by traditional misrepresentations, we can turn as before to Ricardo's immediate disciples, and notice how they understood him. I have already quoted the opinion of James Mill. In Mrs. Marcet's Conversations on Political Economy we have an exposition more detailed than usual of what was understood under 'necessaries' by intelligent popularisers of Ricardo's teaching:—

Mrs. B.... As the capitalist will always keep wages as low as he can, the labourer and his family can seldom command more than the necessaries of life.

Caroline. By the necessaries of life, do you mean such things only as are indispensably necessary for its support?

Mrs. B. No; I mean such food, clothing, and general accommodation as the climate and custom of the country have rendered essential to the preservation of the life, health, and decent appearance of the lowest classes of the people. Fuel, for example, and warm clothing are necessary articles in this country; but they are not so in Africa.... The use of linen is now considered as necessary by all classes of people, and shoes and stockings, in England at least, ahnost equally so. Houses with glazed windows and a chimney are become necessaries; for if our poor were deprived of such accommodation it would very materially increase mortality amongst them.^[3]

Even with the very lowest standard of living in a country like England something more than food is necessary—shelter and clothing; and an increase in the cost of either shelter or clothing would, therefore, according to Ricardo's theory, send up the rate of wages, just as much as an increase in the cost of food. But

1. Elements (ed. 1826), p. 258.
2. On J. S. Mill see Professor Marshall's note already referred to; on Cairnes, his criticism of Mill in Bain's Life, p. 199.
3. Conversation VIII. (3rd ed. 1819, p. 122). Cf. also De Quincey, ubi supra, p. 198; McCulloch, Discourse, p. 68.