the Battle of Waterloo, in which he was engaged, he was promoted to be general and made inspector of Prussian fortifications. He planned the elaborate defenses of Coblenz and Ehrenbreitstein, and was made commander of both fortresses. In 1827 he was promoted to be lieutenant-general, and in 1842, general of infantry. He left essays and other works posthumously published.
ASTERABAD, as'ter-a-biid'.
See Astrabad.
ASTE'RIA. See Sapphire.
AS'TERISK (Gk. ἀστερίσκος, asteriskos, a little star. A sign or symbol (*) used in writing and printing as a reference either to a note at the bottom or on the margin of the page. The obelisk or dagger (†) and many other marks are similarly employed; but when there are several references on the same page, it is now common to use the numerals 1, 2, 3, etc. The asterisk and other similar signs may have any arbitrary meaning assigned to them, at the will of the writer, an explanation being previously given what the signification is to be. The Greek grammarians, or critics, used the asterisk to mark a passage that had been unjustly suspected, but was to be held as genuine, or a passage in any way remarkable; the obelisk, again, marked an interpolated or an objectionable word or passage. See Textual Criticism.
ASTERN'. See Bearing.
AS'TEROIDS. See Planetoids.
AS'TEROPH'YLLITES (Gk. ἀστήρ, astēr, star + φύλλον, phyllon, leaf, alluding to the arrangement of the leaves). Fossil plant remains, formerly considered as representing a distinct genus, but now known to be, together with Annularia and Sphenophyllum, the heteromorphous leaves of the large group of Calamites, of Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian time. See Calamites.
ASTHE'NIA (Gk. ἀσθένεια, astheneia, loss of strength, from ἀ, a priv. + σθένος, sthenos, strength). A specific, infectious disease of chickens, due to the attack of Bacterium astheniæ. The bacteria produced in cultures are found to be killed by immersion in a 1 per cent. solution of carbolic acid for five minutes, though they can vegetate between the temperatures 40° and 55° C. (104° to 131° F.). The most marked symptom of asthenia is extreme emaciation; the chief lesions are found in the duodenum; and in the contents of this part of the intestine the pathogenic organism occurs in large numbers. Thorough purgation followed by tonics has been recommended in the treatment of fowls suffering from asthenia. At present the disease is reported only in the United States, and is popularly known as 'going light.'
AS'THENO'PIA (Gk. ἀ, a priv. + σθένος, sthenos, strength + ὤψ, ōps, eye), or {{NIE article link|Weak Sight{{NIE article link|. A very common affection of the eye, caused by fatigue of the muscles moving the eyeball or of the ciliary muscle. It occurs most often in debilitated or neurasthenic persons, and its chief symptom is pain in or around the eyes, or headache, which is increased by use of the eyes, particularly upon near objects and in artificial light. If the strain is prolonged, the results may be temporary dimness of vision, sometimes double vision, confusion of the lines in reading, photophobia, irritability, itching and burning of the margins of the lids, and lachrymation. Disturbances of the stomach and of menstruation may also result. The affection may be muscular, accomodative, or nervous.
Muscular Asthenopia. This is caused by weakness of some of the muscles moving the eyeball, and often depends upon defects of sight. The symptoms result from the prolonged strain upon the weaker muscles in the effort to keep the visual axes of the eyes in the proper plane, in opposition to the action of stronger muscles.
Accommodative Asthenopia. This is due to strain and subsequent fatigue of the ciliary muscle which regulates the curvature of the crystalline lens. It occurs in various forms of defects of sight, such as astigiuatism and hyperopia (see Sight, Defects of), and is due to the efforts of the ciliary muscle to alter the degree of curvature of the lens so as to bring rays of light entering the eye to a focus upon the retina.
Nervous Asthenopia. This is a functional disorder of the normal eye, depending upon hysteria, neurasthenia, or debility.
ASTHMA, az'ma (Gk. aad/ia.
short-drawn breath, panting, from aeiv, aein, to
blow). A disorder of the function of respiration
characterized by acute attacks of difficult breath-
ing accompanied by coughing, wheezing, and, in
severe paroxysms, by slight asphyxia. Asthma
most often develops after some slight catarrhal
inflammation of the bronchial mucous membrane.
There are a number of conditions which closely
simulate this affection, which only the physician
can diagnose. Every attack of shortness of
breath is not asthma. The theories of its causa-
tion have been numerous, but the one that best
explains the symptoms is that asthma is due to
spasm of the muscle fibres in the walls of the
bronchi. In some cases it seems to be a hered-
itary disease, and intensely nervous people seem
to be more often affected. It occurs in men
oftener than in women, and very frequently in children, especially after measles, bronchitis, or whooping cough. The attack usually begins quite suddenly, at night, announced by some preliminary sense of tightness. The patient wakes with much distress and anxiety, some pain in the chest, and great difficulty in breathing. The efforts to obtain air may necessitate great muscular exertion, and the patient may become covered with perspiration. The face may become purple and the eyes bloodshot. The attack may pass off and not reappear, but the disease is prone to be a chronic one. Treatment is mainly dietetic and hygienic. Dry inland climates are valuable. Bromides, iodides, nitrites, and opium are the drugs most widely employed. Consult Osier, Principles and Practice of Medicine (New York, 1901).
ASTI, iis'te,
(anciently, Asta Pompeia). An episcopal city of Northern Italy, on the left bank of the Tanaro, 35 miles southeast of Turin (Map: Italy, C 3). The walls are dilapidated, the streets narrow and irregular, and the general appearance mediæval. The cathedral dates from 1348, and the Church of San Giovanni, built over an ancient Christian basilica, has monolithic columns bearing Sixth-Century symbols. Asti is famous for its sparkling wine (Asti spumante). It has trade in leather, woolen goods, hats, wine, and agricultural produce, and manufactures of silk. It excelled in the manufacture of pottery in ancient times. In the Middle Ages, it was one of the most powerful republics of Upper
