of revolutionary leaders were condemned and
shot. The Diet "met at Kremsir. in Moravia, and
a new ministry was formed, headed by Prince
Schwarzenberg. But the vigorous policy thought
to be necessary for the restoration of order, and
advocated by the Archduchess Sophia (mother of
Francis Joseph) was foreign to the easy nature
of Ferdinand I. The Emperor abdicated, Decem-
ber 2, and his brother, the Archduke Francis
Charles, renounced his claims to the throne in
favor of his son, Francis Joseph (q.v.), who was
declared Emperor. The Diet, proving intract-
able, was dissolved in March, 1849, and a consti-
tution was granted providing for two elective
chambers and a responsible ministry. The mon-
archy was reconstituted into a unified realm and
the national autonomy of Hungary abrogated.
At the same time, in the German National Parlia-
ment at Frankfort, Austria opposed the project
of a confederated State or an Empire under the
leadership of Prussia. In Italy, on March 23,
1849, Radetzky inflicted upon Sardinia the de-
cisive defeat of Kovara, which was followed by
the abdication of Charles Albert. The struggle
in Italy was terminated in the following August
by the surrender of Venice to the Austrians after
a long siege.
During the winter of 1848-49 the Hungarians bad been gathering strength beyond the Theiss to meet the attack of Windischgriitz, who had entered Hungary in December, and whose ad- vance had compelled the Hungarians to evacuate Budapest in January. On the opening of the spring campaign they took the offensive, and were at first successful. Windischgriitz was suc- ceeded in command by Welden, but the Im- perial cause was not improved. The Diet at De- breezin proclaimed Hungary a repviblic, with Kossuth as governor; but Russian assistance at .last enabled the Austrians to turn the tide, in spite of the gallant efforts of the Hungarian forces. Kossuth resigned the civil and military power into the hands of Giirgei, who laid down his arms to the Russians at VilSgos (.-Vugust 13, 1849). The surrender of Komorn, in September, completed the subjugation of Himgary. which was treated as a conquered country, and the captured patriots were dealt with by Haynau, who had succeeded Welden, with bloodthirsty rigor.
This completed the subjugation of the nation- alities, and the spirit of the restoration soon showed itself. One important fruit of the revo- lution was retained — the abolition of feudalism. . other liberal concessions very soon disap- j)eared. For a time the forms of the constitu- tion of March, 1849, were retained; but the rigorous military government, and the surveil- lance exercised over the press, showed the real spirit of the new regime. Ultramontane influ- ences were rampant. Finally, .January 1, 18.52, it was announced that the constitution and the fundamental rights were abolished, trial by jury set aside, and the old press law revived. This was followed by still greater concessions to the clergj'. For ten years Austria persisted in her policy of reaction, undeterred by its paralyzing effect on the economic life of the nation or by the signs of impending revolution.
When the Eastern war broke out (1853-56), Austria's peculiar relations to Russia led her, in spite of her desire to preserve the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, to remain neutral dur- ing the contest; but it was an armed neutrality. which silently warned Russia against aggressions on the Danube.
The unceasing movements in Germany and Italy toward national unity finally forced Aus- tria out of her unyielding attitude. The Gov- ernment of Austria in Lombardy and Venetia was far from satisfactory. By means of secret treaties Austria obtained a predominant influ- ence in Parma, Tuscany, Modena, the States of the Church, and in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. That influence was exercised in the interests of despotism, and in opposition to the welfare of the people, whose wishes their rulers, backed by Austrian troops, were enabled to set at defiance. The question of Austria's position in Italy was brought by Cavonr before the Euro- pean Congress at Paris in 1850, but nothing direct resulted from the discussions. Sardinia, after all remonstrances of a peaceful kind had failed, began to arm. Austria demanded her immediate disarmament, on pain of war; but Sardinia, whose army was swelled with volun- teers from every part of the peninsula, and who had previously entered into a treaty, offensive and defensive, with France, refused. Austria accordingly commenced hostilities by crossing the Ticino on April 29. 1850. On JIay"3, France, as the ally of Sardinia, formally declared war against Austria ; but, in anticipation of what was to follow, she had several days before dis- patched troops into Piedmont. The Austrian army was overthrown at Magenta, June 4, and Solferino, June 24. On July 11, Francis Joseph and Napoleon met at Villatranca and agreed on terms of peace, the chief condition of which was the cession of Lombardy to Sardinia. (See Italy.) Immediately after this war, the Em- peror Francis Joseph began to turn toward schemes of a more liberal internal policy. The constitutional regime inaugurated in 1801 failed, however, to be acceptable to the Hungarians, and the antagonism of the Czechs of Bohemia, as well as of the Poles of Galicia. tended further to paralyze the efforts of the Government.
Prussia, which since the Restoration had been content to remain in her subordinate position with regard to Austria in the German Confederation, now entered upon a new and energetic policy after the accession of King William I. in 1861 and the calling of Bismarck into the ministry. A steady effort was made to draw the North German ' States close to Prussia. Austria was entangled in the complications of the Schleswig-Holstein affair (see Schleswig-Holstein), and in 1864 she found herself involved with Prussia in a war against Denmark for the liberation of the two duehies. The convention of Gastein, in 1865, with respect to the government of the duchies was a makeshift not calculated to relieve the strain on Austria and Prussia. Austria sought to force the hand of Prussia by referring the set- tlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question to the German Diet. Prussia made a move by occupying Holstein. and the German Diet thereupon summoned the States to mobilize the Federal Army of execution against Prussia. The latter declared the Confederation dissolved, invaded simultaneously Austria and the States that had joined .Austria, and in the brief seven weeks' campaign that followed triumphed completely. The victory of the Prussians at Sadowa was followed by the ])cace of Prague, which dissolved the old Confederation, allowing reorganization without Aus-
