montane Party. In lSnO-(U he represented his canton in the'Counpil of States. He foundeil in 1842 the lieiie Schweizcr '/.eitunij. and published several historical works, of which the most ex- tensive and imjiortant is Die Schiceiz in ihren Kiimpfcn und Omgestriltiiuf/cn von IS.W-oO (4 vols., 18o3-GC). Consult Baumgartner, OuUus Jakoh liaumgartner und die ncuere Staatsent- ii-icK-luitg der Schiceiz ( Freiburg- im-Breisgau, Ibii-i).
BAUMKER', boim'ker, Wu.iiELM (1842—).
A (IcniKin writer on musical subjects, bom at
Kllierfeld, Prussia. He studied at Miinster and
Bonn, and became a Roman Catholic pastor at
Eurich. His most important work is Das
l;atholische deutsche KircJievlicd in seiiien Sinff-
v:eisrn (.3 vols., 1883-1!)01). He has published
biographical and critical studies of I'alcstrina
(1877); Orlnndus de Lassiis (1878); Zur Or-
schichte dcr Tonkunst in Dcutsilditnd von den
crsten Anfiinricit l<is ziir Uvjoimation (1881),
and other volumes.
BAUMSTARK, boum'stiirk, Anto>' (1800-
76). A German philologist, born at Sinzheim,
Baden. He was professor of i)hilolojry at the
University of Freiburg from 1830 to 1871. He
published an edition of Curtius Rufus (Frei-
burg, 1829) ; of Ciesar, with couimentary I Frei-
burg, 1832) ; and an important work entitled
Vrdeutsche fitanlsaltertiimer (Berlin. 1873).
Some of his writings appeared under the pseu-
donym of Hermann vom Busche.
BAUMSTARK, Eduard (1807-89). A Ger-
man political economist, brother of the pre-
ceding. He was boi'n at Sinzheim, Baden; was
educated at the University of Heidelberg; be-
came professor in an academy of agriculture and
political science at Eldena in 1842, and in the
following year was appointed its director. He
was a delegate to the Prussian National Assem-
bly of 1848. and in the following year was elected
a member of the Upper House of that body. He
was subsequently a t^iberal member of the Prus-
sian Upper House and of the North German Diet.
His writings deal chiefly with political economy,
ana include the following: Kanicralistischr Ency-
klopHdie (1835); Gnindgesetze dcr Volh-sn:irt-
schaft, a translation of Rieardo's celebrated
work (1877); Zur Geschichte dcr arbcitcnden
liJassc (1853).
BAUR, hour, Albert (1835 — ). A German
historical painter. He was bom at Aix-la-
Chapelle, and studied with Sohn and Kehren at
Diisseldorf and with Schwind at Munich. He
was professor at the art school of Weimar from
1872 to 187C, but afterwards settled pei'manently
at Diisseldorf. His principal works are: "The
Body of Otho III. Conve.yed Over the Alps"
(18f!G): "Christian Martyrs" (Diisseldorf Gal-
lery, 1870) ; "Paul Preaching in Rome" (1870) ;
"Amazons Bear - Hunting" (1870); "Sealing
Christ's Sepulchre After Entombment" (1879);
"The Daughter of the Martyr" (1880).
BAUR, Ferdinand Christian von (1792-
1860). A German theologian. He was born
at Schniiden, near Stuttgart, June 21, 1792;
studied theology in the Blaubeuren theological
seminary from' 1805 to 1809, and in the Uni-
versity of Tubingen from 1809 to 1817. In
1817 he became professor in the Seminary of
Blaubeuren, where lie gave the first indications
of his abilities by publishing his ^i/mholik und
ilytlwlotiie oder die Xaturretigion dJes Altertums
(Stuttgart. 3 vols.. 1824-2.5). a work which
indicates the influence of Schleiermacher over
the author. In 1820 he was called to Tu-
bingen, where be held the chair of Protestant
theologj'. His whole life was consecrated to
religious studies — the history of doctrines, the
.symbolism of the Church, and biblical exegesis.
On account of the universality of his culture,
the wonderful activity and fertilit_y of his mind,
his rare combination of speculative thought with
solid knowledge, and that faculty of historic
divination or insight which enabled him to draw
decisive results from separate, obscure, and
neglected data, he has been regarded by many in
Germany as the most massive theological intel-
lect since Schleiermacher. Unlike Bruno Bauer
(q.y. ), he made comparatively little use of the
Hegelian philosophy in his writings ; and when ho
did, it was professedly only that" he might, more
clearly understand historical phenomena in their
internal spiritual connection, and be enabled to
represent the logical process of their devel-
opment. His method of investigating the pro-
gressive history of religious opinion, however,
incurred the reproacli of formalism from its ad-
versaries, who said that he ajiplied it too
rigorously, and made dogmas develop themselves
with a kind of abstract inevitable regularity
from previous historical conditions, without al-
lowing for immediate and extraordinary provi-
dences. His most important works in the history
of doctrine are Die christliche Gnosis oder die
christlichelleligionsphilosophie ( Tubingen, 1835 ) ,
a work which makes the Christian Gnosis of the
Second and Third centuries the starting-point
of a long series of religio-philosophical produc-
tions traceable uninterruptedly down through
Middle-Age mj'sticism and theosophy toSchelling,
Hegel, and Schleiermacner; Die christliche Lehre
von der Versohnung (Tubingen, 1838) ; and Die
christliche Lehre von der Dreieiuigkeit und
Mcnschwerdung Gottes (Tiibingen, 18-11-43). In
reply to Mi'.hler, the celebrated Roman Catholic
theologian, who had attacked the Protestant
Church, he wrote Dcr Gegensutzdcs Kutholicismus
und Protestant ismus (Tiibingen, 1830). Besides
these works, based on a historical treatment of
religion, to which class also belongs his hehrhuch
der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (Stuttgart,
1847), he published various critical treatises on
parts of the New Testament; such as Die Chris-
tuspartei in der korinthischen Gemeinde ; der
Gegensatz des Paulinlschen und Petrinischen
Christenthums; and Der Apostel Petrus in Rom
(1831) — a work in which the author endeavors
to demonstrate the existence of dee])-rooted dif-
ferences in that sphere of primitive Christianity
in which we are accustomed to see nothing but
unity and harmony. His inquiries concerning
the Gnosis led him to study minutely the pas-
toral epistles, the result of which study was Die
sogenannten Pastoralbriefe des Apostels Paulus
(Stuttgart, 1835), in which he combats the idea
that Saint Paul was their author, and refers
them to the Second Century. Of a similar nature
is his Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi (Stutt-
gart, 1845).
His work on the Gospel of John produced a startling effect, as up to Baur's time that Gospel had generally been held prior in date to the three synoptic Gospels, whereaa
