DRAWING. 449 DRAWING-BOARD. as does a perspoetive driiwin<,', but with a uni- form scale for all parts of the iiit-turc, while in true perspective the same actual dimension ap- pears of varying size according to its distance from the eye. A ]>erspective drawing, thus scientifically laid out as to its outlines, may be finislied, as to line, color, light and shade, and accessories, in a pic- torial aiid artistic manner, as in free-hand draw- ing: it then emerges from the category of scien- tific drawing into that of fine art. Indeed, no artist can master the correct portrayal of form, especially of scenery and buildings, without train- ing in perspective; it is accordingly an important branch of study in all schools of art. It is abso- lutely indispensable to the scene-painters, and forms the basis of the illusoiy effects of the stage setting. The artists of the Renaissance wore the first to reduce its principles to system, and many of them were carried away by the fascination of its possibilities; the later artists, especially the Venetians (notably Pao'o Veronese and later Tiepolo), and the mighty ^lichelangelo, employed its resources with extraordinary eil'ect in their great decorative paintings. .Ja])anese drawings are interesting for their treatment of perspective, the point of view being in almost all cases as- sumed at a high elevation, giving an a])proxima- tion to the effect of what is called "bird's-eye per- spective.' The Te.ching of Dbavvixg. The delineation of an object actually seen involves, first, oiscrra- tioii, which comprises perception and attention: secondly, the memorizing or mental retoition of the visual impression while the eye is momenta- rily withdrawn from the object to the paper; and thirdly, the coordiiuition of the movement of the hand with the outlines of the memorized image. In drawing imaginary forms or designs originat- ing in the artist's mind, a mental im.age takes the place of the visible object, and imaginative and creative power — the ability to visualize clearly and distinctly in the 'mind's eye' these mental images — is an important element in all draughts- manship of the highest order. Skill in drawing is thus in quite as large measure dependent on in- tellectual factors as on skill of hand, and no sys- tem of teaching drawing which confines itself to the mere discipline of hand and eye can be con- sidered as scientifically or philosophically cor- rect. The draughtsman draws best what he knows best, because well-known forms are those most easily and clearly visualized, so that a thor- ough acquaintance with the widest range of forms is as essential to consummate draughtsmanship as is manual skill in portraying them. Thus it is that constant drawing from life, from nature, from the object, not only gives facility of execu- tion. Imt, by enlarging the range and increasing the thoroughness of the artist's knowledge of forms, gives him greater resource and a broader grasp of form in general. ^lodern systems of teaching drawing to chil- dren in the schools generally recognize these principles. The earliest work in the kinder- garten and primary grades is such as to stimu- late the imaginative and picturing faculty of the child, while he is trained by modeling and ■weaving into familiarity with the more ele- mentary forms of common things. In sub- sequent grades the powers of ac<'urate observa- tion are cultivated and disciplined, while manual de.xterity is imparted almost in.sensibly by varied exercises in drawing from leaves, flow- ers, and still life, and from 'flat copies' of orna- ment forms. In the liiglier grades, drawing from the cast, from the antique, and from tlu- living model, in various media, such as charcoal, In- dia ink, and crayon sauce, gives flexibility to the student's powers of artistic expression, and trains his taste in the selection of what to rep- resent and what to reject in his graphic inter- pretation of what he sees. He is also taught a projier melltod or procedure in the making of his drawings, and learns the correct use of con- struction lines and block outlines, the impor- tance of securing accuracy in the masses before attempting details, and other like principles of correct delineation. In parallel courses, usually in connection with manual training, he has also been taught the elements of mechanical drawing. All these exercises are invaluable for imparting the power of quick, comprehensive, and accu- rate observation, precision of eye-measurements, and dexterity of hand: endowments all of which are useful in the affairs of life, quite apart from any direct application to the fine arts. The detailed methods and sequence of the instruc- tion vary greatly in different systems. Some dwell especially upon nature-study; others em- phasize the development of form-memory; others again make large use of the forms of classic ornament to train at once the eye. the hand. and the taste. In the art schools generally the pupil begins by drawing from the flat copy, then takes up drawing from the antique, i.e. from casts of antique sculpture, and. finally, enters the life-class, in which he draws from both nude and draped living models. The criti- cism has been made that in too many of these schools the teaching follows the routine of ap- prenticeship methods, and lacks philosophical analvsis and progressiveness ; but this doubt- less "is not true of the most advanced among them. The literature of drawing consists mainly of text-books and series of engraved or lithographed studies and models too nu- merous to mention, and rarely of serious value. Among the more important works are: Ruskin, Elements of Diairiiiff (London. 18.57) : Pennell, Pen Draicinr/ and Pen Draiightin(] {Lon- don (1889); ^laginniss. Pen Drawinfi (Boston, 1809) ; Ware, Modern Perspective (New Vork. 1895) ; Spiers. Architectural Drauinri (London. 1888) : also the interesting AVtum de ViHard dr HoH)icco»rf. edited by Lassus (Paris. 18.58). For the teaching of drawing, consult: Clarke, "Draw- ing in the Ptiblic Schools," Report of the United fitatcs Bureau of Education, Circular of Infor- mation No. 2 (Washington, 1874) ; Tadd, New Methods in Education (New York. 1899). See Perspective. For the quality of drawing in a painting, see LiXE. DRAWING-BOARD. A board on which drawing-paper is strained for painting in water- colors. The pajAr is wetted for the purpose of being strained, and, when attached at the edges, it is permitted to dry and contract. For- merly, the drawing-board was fitted into a frame, the edges of the wet paper being made fast by (he pressure of the frame on the board. But the nuich simpler drawing-board which is now in use is made of a flat piece or pieces of wood, held together and prevented from warping by an edging of other pieces, the grain of which
