GREAT BRITAIN. 183 GREAT BRITAIN. principles of the poor-law policy. Those prin- ciples, though subsequently expanded and supple- mented, are still recognized. Children were to be provided for through apprenticesliip. A dis- tinction was made between adults who were able to work and those who were not, relief being extended to the latter, while the former were forced to woik. In ]iractice the system operated very unevenly in dili'erent parishes, since the lack of centralization in the system, and the want of adequate guaranties for proper administration, enabled the local authorities to act arbitrarily — ofttimes '.mwisely and not infrequently to their own selfish interests. In ItilO an act was passed looking to the estab- lishment of Houses of Correction in every county, but these were not intended as disciplinnry in- stitutions. The continued migration of vagrants led to the creation in 1602 of a law of settlement which was sadly out of harmony with the chang- ing conditions of the times, and proved a heavy burden upon the industrial and social life of the country. According to this law settlement could be acquired in forty days, but the individual could be removed during that time if it was con- sidered that he was likely to become need,y. In consequence of the enforcement of this act, it often happened that one parish would be per- manently afflicted with paupers. Even the wor- thy were unable to settle in a neighboring parish, which perhaps was almost equally unfortunate because of the lack of laborers to perform the work required. The resulting social condition has been aptly termed a system of statutory .serfdom. In 1723 a law was passed making pos- sible the general establishment of workhouses and the application of the important principle that these might be used as a test of need, and relief outside of the workhouses might be refused to the able-bodied. This improved conditions for a time, but the law was allowed to fall into disuse. Dur- ing the industrial revolution about the end of the eighteenth century there were naturally many persons who did not conform with the changing conditions, and the pauper element rapidly in- creased. Jforeover, the development of a greater humanitarian sentiment gave rise to a profligate generosity which was reflected in the poor-law legislation of the period. The Gilbert Act (1782), while creating the Poor-Law Union and introducing some other im- provements in the system of administration, directly violated the principle of the workhouse test by making it possible to give outdoor money aid. Another step in the same direction was taken in 1795. when the policy wa.s introduced of supplementing the ordinary wage of the laborer with money aid, the amount of which was increased in proportion to the number of members in the family. The evil wrought by these meas- ures was great. It destroyed the sense of per- sonal responsibility and the incentive of initia- tive. The larger portion of the agricultural laborers became pauperized, relief was exi)ected, and disgrace no longer attached to it. It led to a reckless contraction of marriages and an ab- normal birth-rate in ]>auper families. It was es- timated that in 1802-03 28 per cent, of the population in England and Wales was in receipt of either permanent or occasional aid. It made it possible for wages to be cut, and the self-de- pendent man was often refused employment ; in fact, his lot became worse than that of the pauper. (ireat recklessness in expenditure was common, the poor rates became enormous, and although most classes of the population had coiqierati'd in carrying the policy to an extreme under the i)re- sumption that it served their personal interests, the abnormal status of society was too patent to escape exposure long. Parliament apjiointed a commission to investigate tlio whole question of the poor relief. As a result of t)ie report of this counnission in 1834, measures were taken by Parliament which mark the beginning of a new epoch in the poor-law administration. The cure of the evils existing prior to this re- port was a matter mainl.y of securing an efficient uniform administration. This hinged largely on having a central body with the power to enforce the laws. There resulted the establishment of a commission, which was made .a jjermancnt depart- ment of the Government in 1807, and in 1871 be- came known as the Local Government Board, The board consists of a president appointed by the King and a number of ex-officio members. The- president is assisted by two secretaries. The board has power not onl,y to enforce laws, but, on its own initiative, can issue orders and regulations, which may be either general or particular in their application. The board is thus enabled tO' adapt the system to the varying conditions of dif- ferent localities, and to the clianging conditions in a given place. It can also establish unions and determine the district boundaries between them; and it exercises both an administrative and a financial control over the guardians, and hears and decides complaints brought against them. In order that the board might be properly informed and the charity system properly carried out, assistant conunissioners were appointed, who were superseded in 1847 by insjieetors. Unreasonable expenditure is carefully guarded against by the creation of auditors, Avho examine every item of expense and determine whether or not it is in accordance with the law. If they consider it excessive they can disallow it. The function of the overseers (appointed in each parish by the justices) has been greatly reduced from what it was formerly, their relief work (except in cases of sudden and urgent need ) being assumed by the guardians and their powers of removal having also been turned over to that body. Practically the only duty left to the overseers is the securing of funds by the poor rate. The guardians have in turn become the most important local officers participating in poor relief. The unit of administration of the board of guardians is the Poor-Law Union — a combination of parishes. Each parish selects one or more guardians, and these may choose two additional members. In the rural districts the poor law is administered by the district councilors. The board passes upon applications for i-elief and sees that its decisions are enforced ; it has supervision of pauper establishments and the appointment of paid officers subject to the veto of the central board. The most important of the appointed officers are the relieving officer, who investigates and deals immediately with the case at hand, the clerk, who is the secretary of the board, and the assistant overseers and collectors. While- the poor rate is levied upon the parish, the cost of relief is defrayed from the common fund of the union. Provision is made for the combination of unions into larger districts for special pur- poses, as in the case of the maintenance of pauper
