INDIA. 533 INDIA. mals. In a few localities elephants are of great value in performing certain kinds of work, but their number and use are much more limited than is popularly supposed. The grazing industry is best represented in the raising of sheep and goats. These animals are valued chiefly for their wool. Some pigs are raised, but their number is not recorded in the Government reports. The preceding table shows the number of domestic animals by provinces for the year 1890-1900. Compared with the figures of a decade earlier a slight increase is found for almost every variety in most of the provinces. F.^MIXES. From the earliest historical times India has suffered often and terribly from fam- ines. There is much disagreement, however, in the matter nf locating the responsibility among the different factors which have been held accountable for tliem. Wliile famines are, of course, always preceded by local crop failure, almost every com- munity is said to produce enough in ordinary times to bridge over the occasional period of scarcity, and it would appear that there has never been a year when the whole country did not pro- duce enough food for all its inhabitants. Since crop failure always is at least the local cause of these awful experiences, it is worthy of first con- sideration. The general cause of crop failure is in the first instance a lack of sufficient moisture for the growing crops, though the period of in- sufficient crops may be extended because of the want of seed for a new crop, or of animals to till the soil. In limited districts floods sometimes destroy the crops, but the construction of embank- ments and canals has greatly lessened their de- structiveness. In former years, under a less stable form of government, wars were not infre- quent, and a shortage of crops and resultant famine ensued. But this factor has been much less conspicuous since the British control. In the paragraph above on climate ^^^I1 be found described the important natural elements which determine the distribution of moisture in India. It is only necessary here to note that there are districts in which the rainfall is always hea'y — the chief of these being the region south of Bom- bay, the Deltaic region of the Ganges-Brahma- putra in the northeast, and Assam. There aje other regions in which the rainfall is always very light, the largest being in Sindh and Rajpu- tana. Throughoxit the remainder and most ex- tensive portion of India the rainfall is subject to more or less uncertainty. In some portions, as in Upper Bengal and in Ori.ssa, the fall is ordinarily heavy. In other regions, i.e. the upper valleys of the Ganges and Indus rivers, and throughout the Deccan and southeast coast — the precipitation is less constant, and failures of crops more frequent. Tlie more densely popu- lated districts, where the rainfall is abundant, are always ill prepared to meet a crop failure, and consequently suffer terrilily when it comes. By means of irrigation works (see par. Irri<j(p- tion) the extent of crop failure, however, has been greatly lessened over many parts of the coun- try, especiallv where the rahifall is most un- certain and inadequate. Under British admin- istration such works have even lieen extended into districts where the rainfall is usually suffi- cient. Irrigation itself sometimes fails, as in Madras, where the precipitation may not be great enough to supply the reservoirs or keep the streams full enough to supply the irrigation ca- nals. Naturally the extent of the area affected by drought and the Intensity of the distress and the frequency of occurrence vary greatly. The area m.ay represent a third or more of the total population. The failure of a single season sel- dom, if ever, brings distress. It is when the sec- ond or sometimes the third failure occurs that relief is necessary. It has been maintained that the destruction of the forests, which has been especially great in recent years, is not a little responsible for the droughts. A policy of reforestation therefore has been advocated, and steps have been taken to pre- serve the remaining forest areas. The fact that in districts adjacent to those where a famine may prevail a surplus of food crops is usually found, but cannot be transported owing to lack of facilities, has led the Government to construct railways, which would help greatly to solve the famine problem. The beneficial results, however, have been much disputed. The lack of rolling stock, for instance, has sometimes prevented the timely delivery of famine stores. A more serious accusation is that by bringing a district visited by famine in communication witl^ the world's mar- kets the district is annually drained of the sur- plus food which would otherwise remain in store for a year of scarcity. The main portion of the wlieat crop of the Northwest is exported to Eu- rope, though the natives may die of want before another crop is harvested. This criticism is part of a more general charge against the inlluence of the British Administration. The native, deprived of his manufacturing industries (see Manufac- tures in this article) , and forced to purchase foreign products, as well as being obliged to pay a land tax which many claim is overhurdensome, finds it impossible to retain any considerable por- tion of his produce. On the other liand, it is claimed that the native burdens himself with unnecessary debt : that he lack's thrift and is improvident. Before the British came it was more or less common for both private and public stores of grain to be kept from year to year: the latter were even required by law to l)e so kept. Latterly, however, the public stores, and to a large extent the private granaries, have disap- peared. The work of mitigating distress from famines has accordingly come to constitute a large part of the work of the British Government in India. Elaborate preliminary preparations are made in fear of their recurrence. The work is carefully systematized and officered. 'Ihe country is dis- tricted, and in each district an examination is made of such matters as the water-supply, the social condition of the people, the probable extent of need in case of famine, and public works. The budget makes annual provision against famines whether they actually prevail or not. In the re- lief extended the Government policy aims at pre- venting death and at henefitins the individual. Wages are better for the individual than doles. Accordingly, the able-bodied man is given employ- ment on public works, for which he is paid in money. 'The amount paid is much less than the normal wage, but sufficient to keep him in work- ing condition. Provisions are supplied in- the merohant, and the Government railway makes every effort to facilitate their transportation. For those not able to work hospitals and orphan- ages are prepared. The public works are generally such as are
