INDIA. 635 INDIA. 1900 emploj-cd 101, (iOO hands, as against 42,797 in 188.3. It centres in tlie region aliout Calcutta. Among the other more inijiortant establisliments are woolen, paper, Hour, rice, oil, ami lumber mills, the breweries, coffee-works and imligo and .sugar factories. The total number of factories inspected under the Factories Act in 18!)9 was 1110. emph)ying 300,000 men, G5,300 women, and 27,400 children. The jirovinees of Bombay and Madras each employed over a third of the total force. Among other manufactured Indian prod- ucts are silk (imduding beautiful figured stuffs), various articles of luxury, such as highly wrought work in ivory, gold, silver, copper, and brass, cashmere shawls, etc. In weaving and in carving and inlaying wood and ivory, the native artisans are unsurpassed. Tkax.spoktatiox axd Communication. The network of railways to be seen on a map of India presents a decided contrast with the sparsity of railway lines in other parts of Asia. The mile- age for British India is three-fifths the total for all Asia. The development of the railway system was prompted by a number of motives, and has been prolific and far-reaching in results. The military exigencies, development of the resources of the country, extension of British trade, and humanitarian sentiments or the desire to lessen the horrors of famine have each played varying parts in determining the location of lines and methods of administration. The results show that each of these efforts has been abundantly justified. Closely allied with the influence of the railway system as an economic factor has been its socializing influence — the beginning of the trans- formation of the native society, a les.scning of the rigors of caste, and at least a portend of a recon- structed civilization along more modern and progressive lines. Railway development in India has been in the main in harmony with a policy laid down as early as 18.50 by Lord Dalhousie. This policy comprehended the construction throughout India of a system of grand trunk lines with a uniform gauge, connecting all the large centres of industry^ and population, and the construction of sub- sidiary or feeding lines with a narrower gauge and on a less exjionsive scale. The grand trunk lines were accordingly begun in the early fifties under a system of Government guarantee. The constructing companies were guaranteed 5 per cent, on the capital invested for a period of twenty-five years, and at the end of the contract period the Government had the right under speci- fied conditions to take possession of the lines. The policy attracted capital to the country, and led to a more rapid railway construction than would have been secured by State construction. The guarantee, however. led to some extrava- gance in expenditure and became a hea'y burden to the Government. .- new policy accordingly was taken by the Government in 1 8(1.3-04. under which assistance was advanced to new lines, which in turn obligated themselves to perform certain duties for the State.
third policy was introduced in 1S70 under
which new lines were built and operated clirectly by the Government. The widespread' and disas- trous famines a few years later made it evident flint new lines should be constructed faster than the Government could assume financial respon- sibility for their undertaking, and forced it to fall back upon private enterprise. New lines were built without regard to a uniform policy, the Government generally extending a guarantee, but for as brief a period as possible. Meanwhile the contract period of four companies had terminated, an<l new contracts were made for another twenty- five years, according to which the State, allowing certain concessions, was to share in the surplus income abcve 5 per cent. But subsequently, at the exjiiration of other contracts, the lines have been acquired b.v the .State. Though no settled system has yet tjcen adopted for the administra- tion of railways, it will be seen that the greatest mileage is included in the lines belonging to the Government, but controlled by private companies. In 1900 a little less than half of the total mile- age, or 11.054 miles, was represented liy Govern- ment lines operated by companies; 1500 miles were owned by native States an<l o[>erated by com- panies ; 5884 miles represented State lines op- erated by the State; 1157 miles were owned and operated by the native States; 2003 miles were owned and operated by guaranteed com- panies; 1519 miles were owned and operated by assisted companies; 157 miles owned by the native States were operated by State Railway Agency; and there were 74 miles of foreign lines. The total mileage increased from 10,380 in 1890 to 24,008 in 1900. The total capital expended on Indian railways to the end of 1900 amounted to Rx. 332,751,083. Many of the lines net a large profit to the State, but these are more than counterbalanced by the more strictly military or famine-protecting roads, which result in an annual burden to the taxpayers of India, the amount fluctuating widely, but usually exceeding £1,000,000. The number of post-offices in 1900 was 10,823, which was an increase of 29 per cent, during the last decade of the nineteenth century. The num- ber of letters handled during the same period in- creased 60 per cent. The Im])erial -system of telegraph and the railway system have been united, and there is a uniformity of telegraph charges throughimt the whole system, including 52,900 miles of line and 170.700 miles of wire (1900). The mileage of wire increased 50 per cent, in the last decade of tlie nineteenth century. There are three grades of messages — the urgent, ordinary, and deferred. The charges are less for the messages delivered with the less speed. For a period of ten years ending in 1899 the Govern- ment realized an annual average of 4.8 per cent, net reveiuie (based on the capital sum employed) after allowing for all working expenses. CoM.MERCE. From the earliest periods of his- tory India has held high rank in the trade of the world, having been a large producer of com- modities that were highly prized in general commerce. The attempts of I'ortugal. Holland.
- ind France to secure the largest share of India's
trade form an important chapter not only of its own history, but of that of the world. The desire to find a short route thitlu-r by sea fur- nished nnich of the impetus given to the spirit of exploration diring the fifteenth century, of which the achievement of Vnsco da Gania (q.v.) affords a cons|ucuois example. In 1000 an English trading company, the East India Company (q.v.), joined in the rivalry, and opened the way for the extension of Eng- lish intlience and power over the whole coun- try. For over two centuries trade between Eng- land and India increased slowly. After the Eng-
