IBISH LITERATURE. 769 IBISH LITERATURE. manuscripts are the Liber Hymnorum, and the Book of the Dun, written about 1100; the Book of Leinster, of the twelfth eeiitury; the Yellow Book of Lccun, the Le<ibluir llrcac (Sjjeckled Book), and llie Book of Bullymole, all of the fourteenth eentury; and the Book of Lecan, from about the beginning of the fifteenth. The relit,'ious element in Middle Irish litera- ture, consisting of hymns and sermons, theologieal treatises, and lives of saints, bears a general resemblance to contemporarj- writings in other vernacular languages of Europe. The poetry is largely conventional and technical, but it often reveals a fine fancy and a strong love of nature. In metrical foim it is higlily intricate and shows great artistic skill. Chief interest, how- ever, attaches to the heroic sagas, which con- stitute the best contribution of the Irish to the world's literature. These hero-tales fall into tliree main groups: (1) The so-called mytho- logical cycle, whieh relates various traditions about the early settlement and conquest of Ireland; (2) the Ulloiiian cycle, which tells of the wars between Ulster and Coimaught iu the time of King Conchobar; and (3) the Ossianio cycle. The tales of the first group are chiefly interesting for the light they seem to throw on the ancient Celtic pantheon. The eliaracters are generally held to be derived by a process of euhemerisni from the gods of the old mythology-. The cycle of King Conchobar of Ulster represents ancient Irish literature at its best. While not uninfluenced by foreign thought, these old sagas are in the main a representative national product, and they furnisli the best existing record of what the ancient Celtic people must have been. They were composed in a uii.xed jirose and verse, which long remained the typical Irish epic form. Many of the sagas of this group seem to have taken practically their final shape before the end of the Old Irish period. The third cycle — that of Finn and Ossian — is found in later manuscripts than the second, and the talcs are composed in a more mo<lern language. The events with which they deal are supposed to have taken place two or three centuries after those of the earlier group. The Ossianic cycle shows more traces of foreign influence, and in the opinion of some scholars owes its origin and character largely to the con- tact of the Irish with the Scandinavian people. But it is more likely that the stories of Finn were in the main a native product, and they have continued down to this day to be a favorite body of tradition with Irish and Scottish Gaels alike. In addition to these three sag.a cycles, there exist in Middle Irish manuscripts many sepa- rate tales, or groups of tales, of interest and importance. The Immrama, or stories of mar- velous voyages, deser-e special mention both because they go back to very ancient Celtic tradition and liecause they appear to have had considerable influence on media>val literature in other tongues. The Yoi/dfjc of Brnn. the oldest and in some respects the most interesting of this .series, can safely be dated in the Old Irish period. An entirely different literary vein is represented by the T'isio« of MacConqlinne, a satire of which the fun has seldom been sur- passed. Far removed from either of these types is the story of the Sons of Eochaid Muigmedoin. who have an adventure similar to that related in Chaucer's tale of the Wife of Bath. Middle Irish translations (or adaptations) of foreign material are preserved in considerable number, and represent a wide variety of originals from the tale of Troy to the travels of .Sir John Maun- deville. -MouKRX Irish. Throughout the older periods of Irish literature nearly all the greatest works are anonymous. In the Modern Irish period this is less the case. The later literature is on the whole less significant than the earlier, but the writers, as such, claim more attention. At the beginning of the period stand several prose writers of first importance: the Four Ma.sters, who compiled the greatest collection of Irish annals; Duald MacFirbis, the genealogist; and Geoffrey Keating (also a poet), who.se religious writings and History of Ireland are the standards of classic Irish prose. Treatises in prose, chiefly religious, continued to be written throughout the seventeenth century; but. as education declined among the Irish-speaking population, literature of this sort found itself without a public, and died out. Poetry, on the other liand. continued to h' cultivated: and the work of the modern poets, though it seldom rises liigh in thought or imagi- nation, possesses great melody and charm. Much of it is distinctly popular in character, and has long been common property of the Gaels in both Ireland and Scotland. The seventeenth century witnessed a great change in the form of Irish poetry. The metrical system of the old bardic schools, in which syllable counting and conso- nantal rhyme were the controlling principles, gave way to a new verse-form, in which the accent was the unit of measure and the rhyme was primarily vocalic. The use of vowel-rhymes was extended till it applied to all the accented .syllables in the line, and a strangely melodious verse-form resulted, in which whole poems are constructed with the same accented vowels re- curring throughout in orderly .sequence. The two systems existed side by side throughout the seventeenth centurj-; but in the eighteenth, after the disappearance of the old bardic schools, the use of the newer metres beeame practically universal. The chief representatives of the cl.assic style in its final stage were Tcig mac Daire and I.ughaidh O'Clerv (the leaders in the great "Contention of the Bards"). Teig Dall O'Higin. and Eochaidh O'Hussey. The later school of poets was very numerous, especially in the eigh- teenth century. Among the most representative of the number were David O'Bruadar, John O'Neaghtan, Torlough O'Carolan. Brian Mac GioUa Meidhre (whose "Midnight Court is one of the most remarkable pieces in Modern Irish), Timothy O'Sullivan ('Tadhg Gaolach'), Egan O'Rahil'ly, and Owen Roe O'Sullivan. In the nineteenth century even poetrv- ceased to be much written in Ireland, and the native lan- guage fell into disuse for literary purpo.ses. Only in very recent years has a movement been set on foot to restore the language to general use and to revive Irish literature. An organized effort is being made to bring this about, and Irish books and periodicals are being published in large numbers every year. Two societies have been especially active in the revival: the "Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language," which has long labored to get more recognition for Irish in the schools: and the Gaelic League, a very large organization, which has lately waged a lively popular cam- paign all over the country. Dr. Douglas Hyde
