MAN. r arranged in the order of the power imputed to the respective tutelaries, and the clan-mother and ciderbrothcr of the foremost clan bcctjme the lawgiver and the war-chief for the tribe. The order of the clans is liable to change, usually through bloody revolution, when the rank of the tutelaries "also changes; and infractions of law are punished by contempt or ostracism for petty offenses, outlawry for misdemeanors like failure in the marital tests, and summary execu- tion for crimes — the executioner being deter- mined by rules connected with kinship. There are striking correspondences in the regulations of the Australian and the Seri tribes, despite the fact that the former are pacific and their regulations adapted to tribal extension, wliilo the latter are warriors, whose regulations inhibit expansion save along rigorously guarded lines of tribal blood. These customs show that primitive societies are far from promiscuous hordes, but are definitely organized groups, regulated by in- stinctive and religious observances having all the power of law. In more advanced tribes the social regulations are modified partly through recognition of pater- nal function (in which the father sometimes as- sumes pseudo-maternal functions as in the cou- vade. q.v. ). partly through increase of possessions with the attendant property sense, though still resting on the family basis. The service forming the material test of the Seri groom is commuted into goods already acquired, while the moral test is liquidated in formal ceremonies as among the Zufii, or iu functions connected with projicrty as among the Carolinian tribes observed l)y J.aw- son; later mating is limited by possessions cither nominally material, as among most trilies, or religious, as among the Kwakiutl, where the con- tracting parties balance their totemic or heraldic heritages as a basis for the union : and these customs tend to grow into the purchase and eventually into th^- capture of wives, with con- sequent enslavement of women. Concurrently. male as well as female captives are permitted to live with increasing frequency: these may be classed as 'yoimger' than all their captors (i.e. inferior, usually because taken from a tribe deemed of lower totemic rank), when they become permanently subordinate, or perpetvial slaves; or their 'age' (i.e. social status) may be reck- oned from date of capture, when they rank as 'younger' than all members of the captor tribe then living, but 'older' than those born subse- quently, in which case the slavery is temporary only — and this custom matures in formal adop- tion, which tends to break down consanguineal barriers. Meantime increase of property (espe- cially in live stock) carries growing administra- tive responsibility and tends to enlarge the func- tions of the husband, who step by step assumes control of the household; thus, among the Cocopa the husband owns the house, field, and growing crops, while the wife owns the harvested crop. "the domestic fowls, and the household appurte- nances; while among the Muskwaki the first-born child is named by the father (i.e. after his totem): though in case of its death the right of subsequent naming returns to the mother. The steps attending the transition from maternal organization to the fullv developed patriarchal condition, and from family law to property regu- lations, are numerous and more or less unlike in different environments, though on the whole •4 MAN. the similarities in the various countries exceed the differences; and it is noteworthy that in every stage the regulations are definite, firmly fixed by custom, and controlled by contemporary faiths. As clearly show-n by Fustel de Coulanges, the transition from migratory jiatriarchy to seden- tary civicism was accomjilishcd by growing recog- nition of territorial rights with the reciprocal rights of neighbors; in Central Europe the trans- ition was efl'ected through a feudalism well traced by Sir Henry Maine; yet the family long remained the essential social unit tlirough wliieh hereditary aristocracies were maintained. The accompanying transformation in motive was largely guided by a revolution in faith which need not be traced ; nor is it needful to pursue the consequent transformation whereliy the in- dividual and the State are becoming the funda- mental social factors, with family and other groups occupying intermediate positions. Philology: L.^xccage, or Expressioxal Ac- tivities. The languages spoken by mankind are known onl.v in part, probably in small part. It may be noted merely as connecting linguistic de- velopment with human progress along other lines that the more primitive known languages are definite in vocabulary, elaborate in grammatic structure, and intimately connected with concur- rent systems of belief. Thus among many tribes in different countries personal names are esoteric or taint except in the family or phratry. and among some of the California trilies the entire tongue is more or less sacred to the group and language forms the ostensible basis of tlie actu- ally consanguineous organization. So, too, in many tribes ritualistic chants and other cere- monial recitals are uttered in changed voices and sometimes in archaic terms, with the aim of more effectively reaching the tutelaries. With advanc- ing culture there is a tendency to adopt more general forms of expression even while the in- tegrity of the tribal tongue is maintained, as, e.g. in the intertribal sign language or gesture- speedi so widely used in Central North America; while with the develo,j)inent of arbitrary char- acters hieroglyphic writing and hieratic speech were long employed for ceremonial purposes. In general it may be said that the course of de- velopment of human language is from the formal toward the general, from the religious toward the rational, and from indefinite plurality toward a few loading lines, if not toward unity. Sopinoi.oGY: Idea.s. or Txterpretative Activi- ties. Any survey of the lini's of human develop- ment reveals a continuous interrelation between the aesthetic and industrial and social advances and the growth of ideas ; it also reveals a pro- gressive (indeed cumulative) increase in the prominence of the role played by ideation in every stage from the dull mechanical jirime through the gloomy philosophies of savagery and liarbarism to the confident inventiveness which overcomes lower nature. Tn lower savagery conduct is controlled by fear of the unknown, and at sight or sound of the un- canny men crowd together like gregarious and other social animals for mutual support, and the interpretations become collective; fearful of darkness, they usually assemble at night, and naturally fall into habits of collective feasting and rejoicing over a successful day, and of in- timidating real or imaginary enemies by com* I
