MIDDELBURG. 463 MIDDLE AGES. a revision of the Jiili:iii ealeiular; and Paulina dc Hcvla I'uschw Cvlchratione (1513), in which he deniiinst rates with much learning that, owing to dcfeetive reckoning, tlic Easter festival was fre- quently celebrated at a period a month earlier than that determined by the Council of Nice. Consult: lialdi, Cronica de' matemalici (Urbino, 1707) ; De Paquot, M<h)wires pour servir a I'his- toirc littcrairc de dix-sept provinces des Pays- /{(7s (Louvain. 170.')-70). MIDDENDORFF, niid'dcndurf, Alexander TiiEoiiOR VOX (1815-94). A Russian traveler and naturalist. He was born in vSaint Petersburg and studied medicine in Germany. With Baer, in 1S40, he made an ornithological expedition into Lapland, and four years afterwards made an important trip in Northeast Sil)eria. His journeys were detailed in Government reports, and in his book. Reise in den dussersten Nordcn iind O.iteii .S'i6i/-ien.s (1848-7.5). He was a mem- ber of the Saint Petersburg Academy (Zoologi- cal Section) and for some time its secretary; founder of the Russian Geographical Society; and in 1S40 gold medalist of the London Geo- graphical Society. MIDDLE AGES. The designation applied to the historical period between the times of clas- sical antiquity and modern times. The beginning and close of this period are not very definite. It is usual, however, to regard the Middle Ages as beginning with the overthrow of the Western Roman Em])ire bj' the barbarians in the fifth century, and ending at the close of the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth cen- tury. Some scholars prefer to regard the Renais- sance (q.v. ) as the beginning of modern history. By some, who prefer to use precise landmarks, the Jliddle Ages are made to extend from the end of the Roman Empire in 476 to that of the Byzantine or Greek Empire in 1453, when Con- stantinople was taken by the Turks. Others again make the Middle Ages terminate with the discoverj' of America in 1402. The term Dark Ages is frequently used to cover the greater part of the Middle Ages, the designation being applied by some to the period from the fifth to the elev- enth century, and by others made to embrace all but the last two centuries of the iliddle Ages. In ..D. 305 the Empire was divided. Before tliat there was a single Roman Empire, embrac- ing practically the whole Christian world, extend- ing from the Atlantic to the Fluphrates, from the Rliine and the Danul)e to the great Sahara, with a single government, the same system of laws, an official language. Christianity was the recognized State religion. The Roman civil- ization was in its essential features uniform throughout the Empire; a great network of roads bound all the parts together. In the fifth century the Germ.anic barbarians overran the Western Eni])ire and settled as conquerors in the various parts. Thus the three most impoi-tant factors which were to influence the civilization of West- ern Eurojie during the early Middle Ages were the Roman, the Christian, and the German. The Roman civilization had absorbed to a considerable extent. (Jrcek art. Greek literature. Greek philoso- phy, and (ircek science. It had developed to a marvelous degree a system of administration and law. It had so completely assimilated the vari- ous races in the Western Empire that they were proud to be called Romans. The Christian Church had brought in liigli ideals and had taught new duties. But at the same time it exalted asceticism, and had a tendency to oppose everything pagan which it was possible to eradi- cate. Much of the classical literature and art was under the ban of the Church, because these were so intimately associated with the pagan religions. Consequently the Church diminished the inheritance which the Middle Ages would otherwise have received. On the other hand, the Church adopted the magnificent Roman system of administration and tlius became a great cen- tralizing governmental force. The German bar- barians contributed to the mediaeval civilization certain ideas of freedom, and of the importance of the individual, as shown in their public as- semblies, but the most important contribution was the Germans themselves, a strong race, capa- ble of rapid advance, and always ready to as- similate itself to surrounding conditions. Fur- thermore, those who settled in the Empire were relatively few in number, and consequently were profoundly influenced by the more numerous jjopulation among which they dwelt. The fiftli and sixth centuries were marked by the migrations of the German nations. One tribe after another broke through the Roman frontier and carved out a territory for itself. By 600 almost the whole of the former Western Empire was in the power of the Germans. Diir- ing the seventh and eighth centuries the Ro- manic population and the barbarians were going through a process of fusion. By 800 the two formed practically a homogeneous society of a composite nature. The civilization was far higher than that of the early Germans, far lower than that of the Romans. During this period the Church was converting and bringing under its authority the various peoples of the North and West. (See TH.-iNKS.) Its monks were mis- sionaries of culture and also political agents of great importance in binding the separate nations to Rome. From 800 there was again a Roman Empire in the West. (See Charle.s the Greiat.) Although the Carolingian Empire soon disin- tegrated, its brief existence had been of great importance as a precedent, and had had a lasting efTect upon the relations between the Germans and the Roman Catholic Church. In the States which arose with the disruption of the Prankish realm the absence of a strong central government threw each district upon its own resources. Local rulers arose, defended their territories against invaders, and maintained a semblance of order. These leaders were sometimes bishops or abbots, as well as lay nobles. The power fell into their hands. (See Feudali.sm.) The Church was the only bond of union and the only restraining force in the disturbed conditions of the times. It be- came a mighty engine of government, whose interests were by no means restricted to religious matters. From this time until the close of the thirteenth century the Cliureli vras the most im- portant factor in medi.TVal history. Its author- ity, wealth, and influence increased constantly; its members were prominent in every sphere. In the Latter half of the tenth century Otho the Great (q.v.) connected the fortunes of Ger- many and Italy by restoring the empire of Charles the Great. His action was to result in the weakness and disunion of both countries, but for three centuries the German monarch wa.s in appearance the leading power in Western Europe.
