MILITAKY ARCHITECTURE 489 MILITARY EDUCATION. forniatiou so tar as it atlectid feudal buildings has been described under Castlk, and is exeui- plilied by such structures as Vajda-Hunyad castle in Hungary, Maricnburg in Prussia, and the ducal castle "of Milan. The exquisite de- tails of Gothic architecture and decoration, vaulted halls, giant fireplaces, tracery, and sur- face decoration were multiplied. The city gates, as at Liibeck, Cologne, Tangerniiinde, St«ndal, became works of municipal decoration as well as defense. Consult the bibliography at the end of the article C.sii,k. MILITARY BRIDGES. See Bridges and Docks, Mimtary. MILITARY COMMISSIONS. Special mili- tary courts created during the occupation of con- quered territory, for the trial of ofl'enses which cannot by the rules of war be tried or punished by courls-inartial, and yet which are not within the jurisdiction of any existing court. A mili- tary commission, unlike a court martial, is ex- clu.sively a war court. It nuiy be legally con- vened and assume jurisdiction only in time of war or when the civil authority is suspended on account of the existence of martial law or military government. The powers and procedure of this class of military tribunals have not been defined by statute law nor have they even been expressly authorized by any act of Congress, although they have repeatedly been recognized by the legislative, executive, and judicial depart- ments of the Government. According to usage the same rules which apply in the organization and procedures of courts-martial are held to be applicable to military commissions, and their proceedings are subject to review in the same manner and by the .same authority as courts- martial. Certain offenses which in time of peace are regarded as civil ofl'enses become in time of war military offenses, and are triable by mili- tary commission, even though the civil courts may be open and in the unobstructed discharge of their duties. During the Civil War and re- construction periods capital offenses were fre- quently tried by military commissions and the parties punished, although they were in neither the military nor the naval service, and in spite of the constitutional provision that all persons held for capital or otherwise infamous crimes, except when arising in the land or naval service, shall be tried by jury. Consult: Benet, Military Lair and the Practice of Courts-Martial (New York, 1868) ; ^r(emer,Military(lorernment and .1/(7rNo( Law (Washington. 1892). See Military Law; Courts. Military; Milligan, Ex Parte. MILITARY COURTS. See Courts. Mili- tary. MILITARY EDUCATION. The education of the modern military othccr may be divided into two parts, the preparatory and the techni- cal. The increased demands made ujion him in the exercise of his profession entail a most exacting and comprehensive preliminary train- ing; so much so, that in many countries candi- <lates for army commissions are trained from earliest youth, and molded mentally and physi- cally for their future career. Below will be given a review of the systems of military educa- tion as practiced in Europe and the United States. In .i^STRiA army training for cadets begins between the ages of fourteen and seventeen — there being fifteen schools (ItiuUchulcii) set apart for that work. On graduation cadets are taken into the army and granted commissions according to seniority, each selecting his own regiment or corps in the branch to which he is assigned — subject to the approval of the oUicers of such regiment or corps. The higher academy of Wiener-Xeustadt, with its three years' course for cavalry and infantry oliicers, and the Technical Academy of Vienna, with a similar course for artillery and engineer oliicers. receive most of their pupils from the higher military preparatory schools set ajjart for the sons of officers of limited means. Pupils capable of passing the entrance examination of the acade- mies may enter direct. German is the language used in all military educational establishments, the curriculum also being based on the German system. Belgium trains the officers of all arms at the Ecole Militaire, Ixelles, the course covering a ))eriod of two years for infantry and cavalry, and four for artillery and engineers. Entrance is gained by competitive examination, there being an average of eighty vacancies in the school each year. England possesses two military educational institutions: the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, which is set apart for Royal Engineers and Royal Artillery cadets; and the Royal Mili- tary College at Sandhurst for cavalry and in- fantry cadets. No one is allowed to compete who has not been passed by the Commander-in-Chief, as socially qualified to hold a commission. Both institutions are organized on a military basis, each being governed by a military odiccr styled (Governor and Commandant, appointed by and responsible to the Secretary of State for War, through the Commander-in-Chief. The Governor is assisted by a staff officer, with the title of assistant commandant and secretary, who com- mands the cadet company, and takes charge of all records and correspondeni-e. The entrance examinations are conducted under the super- vision of the Civil Service Commissioners; and there is also a rigid physical examination. The age of admission is from sixteen to eighteen years, successful candidates paying half-yearly fees, the amount of which varies with the status, official or otherwise, of their families. Sons of private gentlemen are required to pay £150 each half-year; and sons of admirals or generals £80. If the cadet is the son of an ofiicer below the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army, or commander in the navy, he pays only £40; and if the son of a deceased officer whose family has been left in poor circumstances, only £20 each half-year is required. Cadet pay at the rate of three shillings per diem is granted by the Gov- ernment, which does not nearly suffice to meet the regular and necessary expenses of the cadet. He is also required to pav £25 to cover the ex- pense of uniform, books, etc.. and to supply liimself with all other articles of clothing, etc. The period of instruction covers two years, and is divided into four classes, of which the fourth is the junior. Tlie third and fourth classes are educated together, but on passing out of the third class into the second, the cadets are sepa- rated into two divisions, engineers and artillery, where they remain until graduation. Those pass- ing out of the third class with the best per- centage of marks go to the engineers, and the
