Slav movement from the second to the sixth century A.D.had dispersed the tribes in all directions, toward the Baltic, beyond the Elbe, and into the Danube basin and the Balkan peninsula. By the twelfth century the Germans had in a great measure pressed hack the Western Slavs to the banks of the Vistula, and the development of Polish power was forced to the east and south among the Slav groups.
Ethnically the Poles belong to the Western Slav group. The bulk of them live in Russian Poland and adjoining parts of Russia. Western Galicia, and the Prussian provinces of Posen and Silesia. They are below medium stature, their average height being 1.624 meters, and are main- ly brachyceplialie and blond. Deniker classes them in his fair, sub-brachycephalic, short, or eastern race, and sees among them traces of a sec- ondary or Vistulian race, fair, mesocephalic, and of very short stature. Race fusion has energeti- cally acted in this region among various sections of the Slavs, so that the Poles have the qualities coming from a good race mixture. Other Slavic tribes, as the Polaks or Podlachians in the Rus- sian Government of Grodno, on the Polish fron- tier, and the Polessians of Western Russia have considerable Polish mixture. In Prussia, by the higher birth-rate and by the absorption of Ger- man elements, the Poles have increased remark- ably, weeding out colonies of Germans in Polish districts, and planting colonies in other portions of the kingdom, notably in West Prussia and Silesia. Under this impulse they have taken to commerce and education with new energy. In some districts they are expropriating the German landlords and sending Polish peasants to take their places. The other fragments of the Polish kingdom in Russia and Austria also show this movement, though not with the same degree of progress as in Prussia.
History. Polish historians profess to go as far back as the fourth century, but the list of rulers which they give are probably those of separate tribes, and not of the combined race now known as Poles. At any rate, the history of Poland previous to the middle of the ninth century is too legendary to have much value. About 840 a king- dom was organized out of kindred tribes under the Piast line of rulers, whose origin is uncertain. Ziemowit, said to be the second ruler of the Piast dynasty, is considered to be the first ruler whose history is to any extent to be relied upon; and it was not till a century after, when his de- scendant Mieczyslaw (Mieeislas or Mscislaw) I. (962-92) occupied the throne, and lieeame a con- vert to Christianity, that Poland really came into the field of Kuropean history. Mieczyslaw divided his dominions among his sons; hut one of them, Boleslaw (or Boleslas) I. (992-1025), surnamed the Brave, soon reunited the separate portions, extended his kingdom beyond the Oder, the Car- pathians, and the Dniester, and carried on a suc- cessful war with the Emperor Henry II. Under him Poland began to assume unity and con- sistency. About the same time the distinction between the nobles or warrior class and the agriculturists was distinctly drawn. This was of the utmost importance in the development of Poland, as it created a sharply defined caste, a military aristocracy entirely out of sympathy with the peasantry, which became ultimately one of the most arrogant and oppressive in Europe. An important event was the foundation of the
archiepiscopal see of Gnesen in 1000. Shortly before his death Boleslaw exchanged the title of Piast for King. He was succeeded by his son Mieczyslaw II. (1025-34), during whose reign the Danes, the Hungarians, and the Russians made themselves masters of various territories which had been occupied by the Poles. Under Casi- mir I. (1034-58) and his warlike son, Boleslaw II., the Bold (1058-81), Poland regained some- thing of its former power. The latter monarch having with his own hands murdered the Bishop of Cracow (1079), the country was laid under the Papal interdict and Boleslaw fled to Hun- gary, where he died. Boleslaw III. (1102-39), an energetic monarch, conquered Pomerania, de- feated the pagan Prussians, and defended Silesia against the Emperor Henry V. A division of the kingdom among his sons was productive of much internal dissension. Silesia was severed from Poland, principalities ruled by branches of the Piast dynasty being established there. Ulti- mately, Casimir II. (1177-94) reunited the severed portions, with the exception of Silesia, and established on a firm footing the constitution of the country. A senate was formed from the bishops, palatines, and castellans, and the rights of the clergy and the peasantry were accurately defined.
Soon after Casimir's death Pomerania eman- cipated itself from Polish rule. In the thirteenth century the Teutonic Knights subdued the heathen Prussians and established their dominion on the shores of the Baltic, becoming formidable neigh- bors to the Poles. The Mongols swept over the Polish territories in 1240. and defeated the Poles, Silesians, and Teutonic Knights in the battle of the Wahlstatt (April 9, 1241). This terrible invasion was followed by a period of general de- cadence, and for a while the Polish realm as such almost ceased to exist. Poland was divided into a number of independent principalities and their dissensions led to the loss of large districts. During this period many parts of the country be- gan to be colonized by Germans, who did much for Poland by establishing industries and devel- oping municipal institutions. Large numbers of Jews, persecuted in Western Europe, took refuge about this time in Poland. The country recovered under Ladislas (Wladislaw) I. (1306-33), sur- named Lokietek (the Short), who abolished ju- dicial abuses and illegally acquired priviliges, and assembled the first Diet for legislative pur- poses, he carried on successful campaigns against the Teutonic Knights, supported by the Grand Prince of Lithuania, and came to be known as the 'father of his country.' Under him Cracow became the permanent capital of Poland. His son, Casimir III,, the Great (1333-70), in- creased the power and prosperity of Poland by cultivating the arts of peace, amending the laws, and consolidating his territories by profitable ex- changes with the neighboring powers. The Prin- cipality of Halicz (Galicia) was annexed to Poland. Extensive privileges were conferred on the Jews at a time when the nations of Western Europe were visiting on them the rigor of perse- cution. The foundations of the University of Cracow were laid. In the latter part of his reign Casimir fought successfully against the Tatars and Lithuanians. With Casimir the Piast dy- nasty became extinct. His nephew, Louis the Great, King of Hungary, succeeded him by the will of the deceased monarch and the election of
