for Polish nationality as treason to the greater
cause of Slavic union. In spite of the measures
directed against it, the Poles of Russia cling
firmly to their nationality, and their authors and
journalists keep alive their attachment to their
native tongue. Galicia, where constitutional
government exists under Austrian rule, is a great
stronghold of Polish nationality, Cracow holding
a place next to Warsaw as an intellectual focus
of the people.
In Prussian Poland the struggle between Pole and German has been very active and has been fought out on an economic basis. It was Bis- marck's policy to plant a Germanic population on Polish soil, and to this end vast sums were spent in buying up Polish estates, which were then peopled with German colonists. In spite of the strenuous efforts of the Government, however, the Poles have more than held their own. The national spirit has undergone a great revival and has united the nobility and the masses in opposition to the domination of the Prussians. The policy of Russification has been pursued by the Government through the intro- duction of the German language in the schools, a measure which led to hitter dissatisfaction among the Poles and some slight disturbances in 1901.
Biography. Of works in English, Dunham, The History of Poland (London, 1834), is com- pact and useful, especially in its earlier portions; Fletcher, The History of Poland from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (ib., 1831), is an in- teresting work, but less reliable than the preced- ing. Consult also: Wolski, Poland (London, 1883); Moltke, Poland (ib., 1885), translated from the German, a valuable sketch; Morfill, The History of Poland (New York, 1893), in the Story of the Nations series. Lelewel. Histoire de Pologne (Paris, 1844), is a Polish plea, but standard. Salvandy, Histoire de Pologne (ib., 1855), is standard for Polish history up to the reign of John Sobieski; Röpell and Caro, Ge- schichte Polens (Hamburg, 1840-63), is the full- est and best of general histories of Poland. On special periods there are Brüggen, Polens Auflös- ung: kulturgeschichtliche Skizzen aus den letz- ten Jahrhunderten der polnischen Selbständig- keit (Leipzig, 1878); Röpell, Polen um die Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Gotha, 1876), an able treatise on the period 1697-1763; Rultrière, His- toire de l'anarchie de Pologne (Paris, 1807, 1819). On the revolutionary movements in Po- land, see Rutrière, Revolutions de Pologne (Paris, 1862); Kunz, Der polnisch-russische Krieg von 1831 (Berlin, 1890); Kozmian, Das Jahr 1863 (Vienna, 1896). On the partitions, Ferrand, Les trois démembrements de la Poloqne (Paris, 1864); Beer, Die erste Teilung Polens (Vienna, 1873); Bain, "The Second Partition of Poland," in the English Historical Review for April, 1891.
POLAND, Russian. An historical division of Russia, forming the westernmost part of the Russian Empire. It is bounded on the north by Prussia and the Russian Government of Kovno, on the east by the governments of Vilna, Grodno, and Volhynia, on the south by the Austrian crownlands of Galicia and Silesia, and on the west by Prussia, Silesia, and Posen. Poland is known officially as the Privislinskiva Gubernii, or Governments on the Vistula, and consists of ten governments, Kalisz, Kielce, Loraza, Lublin,
Piotrkow, Plock, Radom, Siedlce, Suvalky, and Warsaw, with a total area of 49,159 square miles. The greater part of the country is a plain, rising in the south into spurs and foothills of the Car- pathian Mountains. The chief river is the Vis- tula, which passes from south to northwest through the centre of the country, and with its branches waters the greater part of it, though the western part is drained by the German river Warte. The soil is fertile and one-half of the area of the country is arable land, while one- third is covered with forest. The principal crops are potatoes, rye, oats, and wheat. The raising of live stock, especially sheep and horses, is also important. Mining is carried on to a consider- able extent in the southern highlands, and large quantities of coal and iron ore are produced. The total value of manufactured products amounts to $126,000,000 annually. Commerce is facilitated by navigable rivers and over 1500 miles of rail- road; the exports pass chiefly by way of Danzig, and consist principally of wheat, timber, wool, and cattle products. Although absolutely incor- porated with Russia, Poland forms a separate general government, with a Governor-General re- siding in Warsaw. The total population in 1897 was 9,455,943, consisting chiefly of Poles, with about 1,000,000 Russians, 1,500,000 Jews, and a number of Germans, Russian is the official lan- guage and the language prescribed in the public schools. The Roman Catholic Church is adhered to by four-fifths of the inhabitants, and is offi- cially administered by the Ministry of the Inte- rior at Saint Petersburg. For further details, see articles on the separate governments; and for history, see Poland.
POLAND, John Scroogs (1836-98). An American soldier, born in Princeton. Ind. He graduated at West Point in 1861, and was as- signed as second lieutenant to the Second In- fantry. In the Civil War be served in the .^rmy of the Potomac until July, 1863, and was commissary of musters for the Department of Washington from September, 1863, to March, 1865. In June, 1862, he was promoted to be captain; in December, 1862, was brevetted major for gallantry at Antietam, Shephardstown, and Fredericksburg; and in May, 1863, was brevetted lieutenant-colonel for gallantry at Chancellors- ville. In the battle of Gettysburg he was an aide on the staff of General Sickles. After the war he was an assistant professor at the Military Academy, first of drawing, then of geography, history, and ethics, and then again of drawing, until 1869; served on frontier duty for several years; and from 1881 to 1886 was head of the department of law at the United States Infantry and Cavalry School, Leavenworth, Kan. On the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898 he was promoted to be brigadier-general of volun- teers. He commanded for a time the Second Division of the First Army Corps at Chicka- mauga Park, Ga., and died of typhoid fever con- tracted there. He published a Digest of the Military Laws of the United States from 1861 to 1868 (1868). The Conventions of Geneva of 1864 and 1868, and Saint Petersburg International Commission (1886).
POLAND-CHINA. A breed of hogs. See Hog, and Plate of Hogs.
POLANGUI, jio-liin'ge. A town of Southern Luzon, Philippines, in the Province of Albay
