POLAR RESEARCH. 160 and its waters merge with those hieh in modern times have been the predominant liighways of sea trade. The whale and seal fislieries of the north opened the great era of Arctic discovery in the seventeenth century. For 150 years after Henrv Ihidson in 1G07 examined the long edge of the pack-ice from fircenland to Nova Zcnibla, the nnnals of the Dutch and English whaling trade provided nearlv all information of the Arctic area. The commercial instinct that led to the first gi-eat Arctic voyages had two distinct phases. One was the endeavor to extend the limits of the northern fisheries; and while the prosecution of the Arctic whaling industry added a vast sum to the wealth of the world — estimated at over $000,000,000 in 200 years before the middle of the nineteenth century — it naturally resulted in largely extending our knowledge of the north polar "world. The other phase was the desire to shorten the water route between the ports of West Europe and the rich Orient by finding either a northwest or a northeast passage be- tween tiiem. This ambition was a great stimulus to Arctic exploration from the days of Barents, Baflin, and Hudson near the opening of the seventeenth century till the time of Sir John Franklin in the middle of the nineteenth century. The commercial incentives for polar explora- tion thus predominated until far into the nine- teentli century and were strongest in the north near the seafaring nations, with the result that while the imknown area of the Arctic regions is now only about as large as European Russia, that of the Antarctic domain is double the size of Europe. The fact that the largest discoveries of the eighteenth century were made by sailors, that period being an era preeminently of the survey of coast lines and the discovery of islands, had the effect of stimulating voyages both into Arctic and Antarctic territory for geographical pur- poses; but the era of scientific research in the polar regions scarcely began till the first half of the nineteenth century. The humanitarian im- pulse that led many expeditions to engage in the search for Sir John Franklin resulted in enor- mous additions to our knowledge of Arctic America. In recent years the avowed purpose of the most worthy expeditions has been scientific research. Eqiupment. One of the important results of polar research is the present methods and outfit for work and life in the ice zones, evolved from the experience of three centuries. The problem of fairly comfortable and hygienic existence for white men in the polar regions has l>een solved. For more than 250 years white men in the Arctic suffered severely from scur y. The food supplies long included large quantities of salt meat, and until recently the dietary of Arctic whalers and explorers was almost certain to breed seur'y. If they now fall victims to this disease it is the result of great carelessness or ignorance. The art of selecting and presening foods of healthful and great nutritive quality for use on polar expeditions has been reduced to a science. The ships employed by explorers were formerly poorly equipped for battling with the ice; but the ex- ploring craft of the present, of which the Fram, Dinrovert). and Gatiss are the best examples, are believed closely to approximate the ideal type of vessel for ice navigation. They are built with POLAR RESEARCH. rounded sides, so as to olTer as little hold as possible to the clutches of the icepack, and they provide comparatively comfortable accommoda- tions for the men. The substitution of steam for sails, the larger use of dogs instead of men at the sledge ropes, the adoption of the snowshoe and Norwegian ski in snow work, the great improvements in sledges, the utilization of Arctic game for food and to a considerable extent of the methods of living, the boats, the snow houses, and some other appliances of the Eskimos, have been very helpful factors in recent exploratory work. NOKT}I POLAR EXPLOEATIONS. Fully one-half of the area of the Arctic regions consists of well-known land, of which, however, only small portions in Northern Russia, Sweden, Norway, and Alaska are inhabited. Scattered Eskimo huts dot the seacoasts of the north coasts of America, the Parry Archipelago, and Greenland, and hunting bands of Samoyedes win- ter in Nova Zembla. The archipelago of Franz .Josef Land, New Siberia, Spitzliergen, and Wrangcll Land in the Eastern llcnusplieic, and all lands to the north of the TOth iiaiallcl in the Western world, are uninhabited, and exploration turns in these di- rections. Routes of Explobation. The six main ap- , proaches to the unknow-n Arctic Ocean and its scattered islands are the Nova Zerabla or North- cast Passage; the Franz Josef or Barents Sea; the Spitzbergen or Greenland Sea ; Smith Sound ; Lancaster Sound (Northwest Passage) ; and Bering Strait. Nova Zembla (Northeast Passage). After the discovery of America came efforts to find northeast and northwest passages to India. Of early English explorers, Willoughby and Chancel- lor in 155.S opened Archangel Bay; but Willough- by and two of his three ships were involved in the first great Arctic tragedy, the leader and his 62 men perishing of scurvy during the winter; while Burrough (155(1) and Pet (1580) discovered and explored the Waigat, the strait leading into the Kara Sea, south of Nova Zembla. Most success- ful of early voyages were the three expeditions of a Dutchman, Willem Barents. In 1.594 he' traced northeastward the coast of Nova Zembla to the Orange Islands, 77° north. Failing next year to pass the Waigat, Barents sailed in 1596 under .Jacob Ileemskerck, but parted from him and rounded the North Cape of Nova Zembla. In sailing south on the east coast the party was beset and obliged to winter in lechaven, Barents Sea. After great privations they abandoned their .ship in the summer and retreated by boat to Kola, Barents dying en route. This lagt voy- age of Barents was one of the most important of all the journeys to the unknown Arctic frontier. He showed the terrific pressure of the polar pack upon the north coast of Nova Zembla, and the existence at least occasionally of much open water to the north, a fact that has expedited many voyages to and from Franz Josef Land. Out of Chancellor's voyage arose the Muscovy Company, to the incalculable advantage of Eng- lish commerce. From Barents's voyage event- ually resulted the Dutch whale fisheries. Russian energ>'. taking up the problem, out- lined between 1030 and 1648 great extents of coast line. Among the explorers who achieved prominence were Elis6 Busa, who traveled
