POLITICAL ECONOMY. 191 POLITICAL PARTIES. Principles of Political Ihoitomy ii:ilh Some of flicir Applications to Social Philosophy (ib., 1S48I ; Senior, An Outline of the Science of Political Economy (ib., 1850). Prominent mod- ern general treatises are: Jlarshall, Prin- ciples of Political Economy (4th ed., ib., 1898) ; Nicholson, Principles of Political Eccm- umy (New York, 1893-1901); Ely, Outlines of Economics (New York, 1893); Wagner, Lehr- nnd Handbuch der politischen Oekonomie (Leip- zig, 1883-1901). The new theories are best repre- sented by Wieser, Natural Value (London, 1893) ; Boehm-Bawerk, Positive Theory of Capi- tal, Kng. trans. (ib., 1892): Clark, The Distribution of Wealth (New York. 1899). The most important socialistic contribution to eco- nomics is Mar.x, Capital (London, 1887). Con- sult, also: Ingram, A History of Political Economy (New York, 1888) ; Ashley, An Intro- duction to English Economic History and Theory (London, 1888-93) ; Palgrave, Dictionary of Political Economy (ib., 1894-99). POLITICAL OFFENSES. Acts which are considered as injurious to the safety of the State, or which involve a violation of the al- legiance due from a subject or citizen to the supreme authority of a nation. Such offenses are to be distinguished from those which merely disturb the public peace, as murder, theft, and the like, and which do not strike at the Govern- ment itself. Political offenses are now usually exempted from extradition treaties. However, England and the United States, to avoid international complications, have passed laws tending to pre- vent expeditions against foreign governments be- ing fitted out within their territorial limits. The tendency in modern times is to deal leniently with political offenders. For example, although treason is nominally punishable with death in most countries, the sentence is now usually com- muted to life imprisonment, as in the case of Col. Arthur Lynch, who was convicted of treason in England after the Boer War. See Citizen; Extradition; Government; Treason. POLITICAL PARTIES. Voluntary associa- tions or organizations of citizens for the attain- ment of desired ends or policies through united political action. They are found in all demo- cratic States and all countries governed upon a constitutional basis, and are a necessary accom- paniment of popular government. The Germanic nations, and especially those of the English branch, have always shown the greatest aptitude for political organization. The theory and gen- eral practice of parties among the Latin arid other peoples which have followed the English race in the adoption of popular representative government is the same. Kace characteristics and lack of training for self-governing institu- tions have, however, modified the party system in actual practice among these peoples. There is especially to be noted a tendency to split into personal factions until real issues and principles are lost sight of. The political groups in France and Spain illustrate this tendency. Aside from local and temporary issues, there are certain natural lines of cleavage in political society which always have an influence in the composition of parties. The division between conservative and radical, with all the inter- mediate shadings of belief, is as old as society, and underlies nearly all parties that are not mere personal factions. In the i)olitieal phi- losophy of the world the nice balance between the conservative spirit that clings to that which is sanctioned by established usage, and the radical, progressive, or liberal spirit, which seeks modification of the old in the interest of progress, is most desirable. This end is somewhat im- perfectly attained by the opposition of parties representing in some form the two ideals. This is the broadest and most universal idea that divides parties. In England, where the highly developed parliamentary government makes strong party organizations indispensable, they form almost a part of the governnu-nt machinery itself, and have their chosen and otiicially recog- nized leaders by whom the party policy is voiced and directed. In other countries, although their influence upon the government is as important, their connection with it has less of an official character. Below is given a summarized account of party relations in the various European coun- tries and Canada. Political parties in the I'nited States are described under their historical names, as Democratic Party; Republican Party; Whigs ; Party; etc. Austria-Hungary. The strong national feel- ing on the part of different peoples embraced in the dual monarchy and the peculiar constitution of the Empire have aligned parties chiefly upon race lines. In Cisleithania are the Germans, con- stitutmg roughly one-tnird of the population; the Bohemians or Czechs, not quite one-fourth; the Poles, about one-sixth; several smaller Slavic groups; the Rumans; and the Italians. These are mutually jealous and antagonistic, and this fact determines the policy of the Imperial Ministry, which is, in general, to create its own party support by combining different race groups against the others. After the revolutionary movement of 1848 a period of absolutist reac- tion set in, which suppressed all political life for ten years. In 1861. after the failure of an attempt to reorganize the Empire on a federal- istie basis, the Government proceeded to estab- lish a constitutional system upon a basis of con- solidation. In this reconstruction the aspira- tions of the Magj'ars were all but completely ignored. During the period between 1800 and 1867 the so-called Federalist Party stood for Conservatism in its strictest sense, and party government as distinguished from the Imperial policy can hardly be spoken of. After a suspen- sion of the Constitution, the compromise of 1867 (see Austria-Hungary and Ausgleich) was ar- ranged, establishing the present dual system. Un- der it party contests in Cisleithania have become more [ironounced. The Germans are primarily divided into the Liberal and Conservative parties, the latter of which comprises Feudalists, bureau- cratic, and, above all. Catholic elements. But the Germans present by no means a united front, even as against the pretensions of other nation- alities. The Socialists represent, as in Germany, in great measure the aspirations of the lilieral elements, while Christian Socialism has become but another name for the ramiiant party of anti- Semitism. Of late the anti-German attitude of the Catholic clergy has given impetus to the so- called "Los-von-Rom" movement, which has driven thousands of liberal Germans in Lower
