POLITICAL SCIENCE. 202 POLIZIANO. PxistiiiK State forms. Coiiu-wall Lowin combines the seientifii- method of observation with a luRhly philosophical spirit. There has lately arisen a school of political scientists who apjily to their writings the term sociological. They hold that the true study of politics should rest, not upon the legal ana"lysis of institutions, but upon an investigation of the forces of society which are striving to express themselves through political action. They emphasize particularly the exist- ence of groups within the State which represent common interests and are animated by common motives, and they conceive of State life as made up of the struggle and competition between these social groups. The principal rei)resentatives of this theory are the Austrians Gumplowicz and Ratzenhofer. The inductive method, based upon observation and the study of recorded facts, is, however, not the only one employed by prominent writers on politics during the nineteenth century. Hegel's purely i)liilosophical construction of the State finds an echo in llie writings of T. 11. (ireen and of Bosan(iuet. The deductive melliod is used by Sidgwick, Lieber, Jlill, and the Liberal School in general. The juristic method of analyzing existing in.-5titutions is still almost universally in the ascendent in books dealing with juris- prudence and constitutional law. The works of American constitutional jurists are primarily analytical, and although they devote considerable attention to the liistory of "the formation of the Constitution, this is done in order more fully to explain that instruiiient, which is then analyzed anil examiniMl in all its bearings ujion modern government. Knglisli jurists like Holland. Anson, and Dicey, following .ustin, also still employ this method with preference, although the his- toric study of law has made great progress in England. BiBi.iOGRAPiiv. Seeley, Introduction to Politi- cal Science (Lcmdon, 'l80(j) ; Bluntschli, The Theory of thr Utate (Oxford, lSil'2) : Bryce, Studies in Hiftlory mid ■Jurisprudence (London, 1902) ; Wilson, .In Old Master. Es.tni/ II. (New York. 18n:i) ; Lewis, Method.'i of Obserration and Reasoninfi in. Politics (London. SrrZ) : Willough- by, The Nature of the Slate (New York, 1896) : Bosanquet. The Philosophical Theoni of the State (London. 1899) : McKechnie, The Stale and the Indiridual (Glasgow. 189U) ; Pollock, History of the Science, of Politics (London, 189.3) ; id., A'.x.so i/.s- in Jurisprudence and Ethics, E-isays I., If., and VIII. (ib., 1882) ; Coodnow, Politics and Administration (New York. 1900) ; Sidgvvick. Elements of Polities (London, 1896) ; Funck-Brentano, La politique (Paris, 1892) ; Ratzenhofer, H'raoi und Zweck der Politik (Leipzig, 1893) ; .Tellinek. Das liecht des mo- dernen Staates (Berlin. 1900) : Gumplowicz. All- gemeines Stnatsrecht ( Innsbruck. 189" ) ; .Janet. Hisloire de la .<<eience ji(jliti<iue, dans ses rapports arec la morale. Introduction (Paris, 1887). See also Govern -MKNT; Cmi, Administration; Pitb- i.ic Law; Diplomact; Sociology; State; Con- STITITIONAL LAW; INTERNATIONAL LAW. POLITICS, The. A work by Aristotle dis- cussing the relation of man to the State and the difTerent forms of government, and presenting an ideal State incorporating the best points of vari- ous systems. The family is regarded as the foundation of the State, all citizens of which are to have a share in the government and to own land. The work shows, for its period, much knowledge of history and political judgment. POLITIQTJES, po'le'tek' (Fr., politicals). The name of a party which arose in France in the leign of Charles IX.. composed of moderate Catliolics and Protestants, and aiming at the termination of the civil strife by a com|)r(jmise between the two factions on the basis of relig- ious toleration and the preservation of the rights of the State as against the privileges of sectaries. It numbered among its adherents such men as Jean Bodin and De Thou, and was inlluential in establishing Hcniy IV. on the throne. See France. POLITY ((Jk. Toi.Tela, politeia, polity, citi- zenship). A term used to describe the system on which a State or a Church is organized as a structural unity. In civil usage, the principal forms of polity are monarcliy. the rule of one man; aristocracy, the rule of the best; democracy, the rule of the people as a wliole: oligarchy, the rule of a few. In ecclesiastical organization, the princijial forms are the Papal, in which supreme government is placed in the hands of the Pope alone; the episcopal, in which it is shared by the whole body of bishoi)s ; the presbyterian, where it is held by an assembly of presbyters; and the congregational, in which each congregation is in- dependent of any central government. PO'LITZER, Adam (18.35—). An Austrian aurist. He was born at -Mberti. Hungary, stud- ied in Vienna, Wiirzburg. Paris, and London, and in 1871 became professor at the University of Vienna. He bad achieved great success in 1863 with the publication of his method of treating deafness consequent on catarrh of the inner ear, and he gathered at Vienna a wonderful col- lection for the anatomical and patliological study of the ear. The more imiiortant works of Politzer are: lieleuchtungshilder des Trom- ■melfclls (180.5); Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde (1878-82; 4th ed. 1901); Die anatomi.iehe und histologische Zergliederung des menschlichen Ge- hiirorgans (1889; and an Atlas der Hcieuch- tun<islyil<lrr des Trommel felU (189.5). POLIXENES, pA-liks'e-nez. The King of Bolicmia in Shakespeare's Winter's Tale. His old friend Leontes. King of Sicily, becomes jeal- ous of liim and attempts to poison him. POLIZIANO, p&-let-s.va'n(*). Anoelo (Latin- ized form. Politiamis (14.54-1494). An Italian scholar and poet. He was the son of a doctor o£ civil law, and was born at llontepulciano, in Tus- cany. .July 14, 1454. The family name was Am- brogini. but Poliziano took his name from his natie town — in Latin, Mons Politiamis. He studied Latin at Florence under Cristoforo Lan- dia. tJreek under Andronicus of Thessalonica. the Platonic philosophy under Marsilio Ficino, and the Aristotelian under Arg>Topulos, When scarce- ly fifteeif years of age he published a poem of 1400 lines in honor of Giulio de' Medici, who had carried oflf the palm at a tournament. Lorenzo de' Medici took notice of the brilliant lad, and to afford him the means of continuing his studies appointed him tutor to his two sons, and subsequently gave him a residence in his charming villa near Fiesole. where Poliziano. who was passionately fond of country life, resumed his studies with fresh ardor. In 1484 he accom- panied the Florentine ambassadors to Rome, and
