PSALMS. 502 PSALTERY. (synonymous parallclisui, cf. Psalm i. 2), or presenting a thought in contrast to that of the lirst (antithetic parallelism, ef. Psalm i. 6), or correspondinj; in structure to the first, the paral- lelism being in the form rather than the thought (synthetic parallelism, cf. Psalm ii. ti). All these elements are found in Babylouo-Assyrian poetic literature, and may be regarded as char- acteristic of ancient Semitic poetry in general. The combination of verses into strophes was, of course, a step that was bound to be taken, and the earliest and most conmion strophe was that of four lines, but all species of variation were introduced, and it is dillicult to determine the character and number of these variations. A long controversy has been waged in regard to the question of Hebrew metre, and while at pres- ent there is a general disposition among scholars to recognize the existence of well-defined metrical forms in Hebrew poetry, there is no agreement as yet to the number or even nature of these forms. Four theories are at present contending for the mastery. The one represented chielly by J. Ley {Onindzilye des Rhythm us dcs Vers- und ■ des Htrophcnbaucs in dcr hebraischcn Poesie, Halle, 1875, and Leitfaden der Metrik der hehraisohen Poesie, ib., 1887), rests on the counting of the word-accent, of which there is at least one in every word (barring enclitics), and in some words two. According to the theory, the number of unaccented syllables is not taken into account, and the metre depends solely upon the number of accented ones. A second theory advocated chiefiy by G. Bickell {Carmina 'cteris Testumenti iletrice, Innsbruck, 1882) is an application of the principles of S3'riac metres to the poetry of the Old Testa- ment, and recognizes the various metres by the number of 'rises' and 'falls' in all the syllables of each line. The fatal objection to the theory is that it involves constant changes in the Jlas- soretic text to admit of being carried out, and while all scholars are agreed that the JIassoretic te.xt requires critical treatment, a hypothetical metrical theory does not form a satisfactory point of departure for a pruning jjrocess. Re- cently Grimme ("Abriss der biblisch-hebriiischen !Metrik," in the Zcilschrift der deulschen mor- genlundischen Gesellschaft, 1896, pp. 529-584, and 1897, pp. 68.S-712) has endeavored by a combination of the accent and the quantity theory to work out new principles which rest on the assumption that every syllalde lias, inde- pendent of the accent or in combination with it, a definite quantity. The value of the various quantities of all the syllables in a line plus the principal tone-syllable in a word forms the means of determining the kind of metre employed. While (irimme's theory is not open to the objec- tion that applies to Bickell's, it assumes values for the vowel sign_s attached to the Hebrew words which vary radically from those hitherto accepted. His theory, therefore, stands or falls W'ith the system of accents and vowels that he sets forth in his work, (SrioHki'ifie der hebraischen Accent- und Vocallelire (Freiburg, 1890). The latest investigation of the subject, and one which may fairly .be considered to mark a decided advance toward the solution of the prob- lem, is represented by Eduard Sievers's "Studien zur hebraischen IMetrik." of which the first pari appeared in the Abhandliinricii dcr phiJoInpisch- historischcn Classe der koiiir/lich sUchsischen Oesellschaft der Wissenschaften, vol. xx., 1 (Leipzig, 1901). Sievers, who.se contributions to metrical studies in general lend to his utterances great authority, endeavors to take into account the 'unaccented' syllables as well as the 'ac- cented' in his study of the form of Hebrew poetry. Recognizing, as his predecessors did, that the fundamental features of Hebrew poetry are the 'line' and 'verse,' he has drawn up on the basis of an original distinction between 'singing' and 'recitative' poetry a scheme of the variations in 'lines' and 'verses' (or 'rows' (Reihen) and 'periods' (Periodcn) , as he prefers to call them, to be detected in Hebrew ])octry. The norma! foot in Hebrew poetry consisting of three syllables (or their dissolution), there arc to be distinguished 'simple' lines consisting of two, three, and four feet, with a preponderance of the 'two feet' line, but with further complica- tions by the multiplication of this kind of a line to form a 'six feet' line. The combination of lines leads again to a variety of verses or 'periods,' and among these the most common again is the 'symmetrical' verse formed of the doubled form of the triple 'two-feet' line. In the course of his elaborate investigation, Sievers endeavors to take into account not only the quan- tity and accent of words, but also enclitics that have no 'tone' and words wdiich by close com- bination with others have lost their 'tone.' It is perhaps too early to pronounce a verdict on Sievers's scheme, but it seems safe to predict that he has directed the study into new channels, and has tended to discourage theories that either give to Hebrew poetry an 'eccentric' status or that can only be carried out by violent distortions of the Massoretic text. BiiiLiOGKAPHy. Of commentaries, translations, etc.. mention may be made of those by Olshausen (Leipzig, 1853); Hitzig (2d ed., Leipzig, l.S(i.3- 65) ; Ewald (Die Dichfcr des Alten liundes, 2d ed., Giittinsen. 1805-67: Eng. trans., London, 1880); Graetz ( Breslau, 1882-83); Cheyne {The Book of Pscilnis. London, 1884; The Book of Psalms with Commentary. London, 1888); Perowne (London, I8()4: new ed. 1892) ; Nowack (Gotha, 1888) ; Kirkpatrick (Camhridqe Bible for Hcliools and Collerjcs, Cambridge. 1891 sqq.) ; Baethgen (2d ed.. Gottingen. 1897); Dclitzsch (5th ed., Leipzig, 1894; Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1887-89) ; Wellhausen {The Polyehrome Bible, Leipzig, 1896: Eng. trans.. New York, 1898); Duhm' (Freiburg. 1899). Consult, also: Cheyne, The Historical Ori/iin and. Rclifiious Ideas of the Psalter (Banip'ton Lectures for 1889. Lon- don. 1891): Loel), La litierature des pauvres dans la Bible (Paris, 1892) : Davidson, The Praises of Israel (London. 1893) ; Robertson. The Poetry of the Psalms (London, 1898) : and the introductions to the Old Testament, and Old Testament theologies of Sclndtz. Kayser-JIarti. Sniend, and Dillman. For Hebrew poetry, be- sides the works already mentioned, consult; Lowth, De Sacra Poesi Belirworum (Oxford, 1753: trans, by Gregory, 1847) : D. H. Jliiller, Strophenhau und Responsion (Vienna, 1899). PSALTERY (OF. psaltcrie, from Lat. psal- terium, from Gk. y/zaXT-fipiof, stringed instrument, from l'd€iP, psallrii). to piny on a stringed in- strument). A sort of dulcimer (q.v.), played with the fingers instead of with hammers. It is of Greek origin, and is related to the Persian santir and the Arabic kanun. It was a prototype of the pantaleon (q.v.), and so one of the large
