THE RISE OF TOWNS AND GILDS 331 Rouen were granted a practical monopoly of trade between Normandy and Ireland and several special trading con- cessions in England. Other unions for economic purposes which accompanied and assisted the revival of town life were the gilds of arti- sans. By the second half of the twelfth century Gilds of many were already completely organized in artlsans France and Italy and were in existence in Germany and England, although not so numerous and important in those lands until the next century. It is doubtful if any of them were survivals from the hereditary gilds of the declining Roman Empire. They may have grown out of servile groups of artisans on great estates or they may have origi- nated only with the revival of town life. Then their formation was facilitated by the clustering together in the same street of men of the same occupation, either because the location was convenient for their work or to watch one another. This jealous competition gradually changed to harmonious co- operation in the prices and quality of goods sold and in car- ing for the poor and sick, the widows and orphans, in one another's families. In a gild there were apprentices, journeymen, and master- workmen. The apprentices were boys learning the trade under the guidance of a master- woikman in Gild whose house they lived and worked without or g anization wages for several years. Indeed, at the start the lad's parents had as a rule to pay the master a sum of money; but at the close of the boy's apprenticeship he often received a parting donation from his master or sometimes was paid wages during the latter years of his term of service. The time of apprenticeship varied from three to eleven years according to the difficulty of the craft. When this term had been completed, one became a journeyman and worked for wages under the master- workmen. The English word "journeyman" comes from the French journee, referring to the fact that they often worked by the day, but the French name for such artisans is ouvriers, or valets. Finally many journeymen became full-fledged members of the gild or
