370 THE HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE except Jews and absolute serfs or slaves of the bishop were called citizens, although many of them as yet were not fully free. Gradually a city law grew up distinct from the mano- rial law, or Hofrecht, of the bishop, to which most of the inhabitants had once been subject. Finally the Hofrecht disappeared entirely and all the citizens became personally free, but there was no corporate body of citizens until the thirteenth century. The last step was the union of the citi- zens and their winning of self-government by a struggle with their prelate in 1262. In our discussion of medieval towns we have combined certain developments which did not necessarily always go _ together, but which were too closely associated to separate in the vast majority of cases. First, the growth of towns as cejrtersj}fj^^ul^ try and trade. Second, the rise of towns as separate units in medieval society and feudal politics, as distinct entities existing on terms of equality along with feudal lords, bish- ops, and abbots, and regulating their own internal affairs with the same freedom from outside interference that a lord enjoyed in governing his manors or an abbot in ruling his monastery. Third, the advance of the merchant and industrial classes in the towns to a position of influence and a share in the government. But some towns, like Paris, that were large in population and noteworthy for their business life and manufactures, were still not free politically. On the other hand, many places that were scarcely more than villages had gained independence and self-government. Again, many self-governing towns were far from democratic and excluded the lower classes from ofhce or even from the suffrage. Finally, while the chief magistracies and councils in the towns of different countries have been mentioned in a general way, no description has been attempted of the numerous minor offices, nor of the many special boards and advisory bodies. It should also be realized that there was almost infinite variety in the forms of government, the local laws, and the charter provisions of the many towns. Indeed, in the history
