NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN ENGLAND 487 after their foundation, and English churches and universities formed one religious and scientific world with English the clergy and schools of the Continent. Eng- ?iviMa»tion land, however, produced an unusual number of thirteenth learned writers, some of whom displayed marked centui *y originality. After the Norman period the English developed t heir own style of Gothic architectu re, called " Early Eng- lish." Owing to the decay and transformation of the Anglo- Saxon literature and language, England had no national literature worthy of the name until the second half of the fourteenth century, and most writing was in French or Latin. England was a wealthy country in the thirteenth century, but its towns were small compared to those across t he Channel and not so far advanced in industry and com- merce. While England was developing national unity, the other peoples of the British Isles — Welsh, Scots, and Irish — re- mained independent. Neither the Anglo-Saxons Ireland nor the Normans had succeeded in conquering Scotland, them. But they lacked any strong political an aes union among themselves, and in civilization fell behind England which was richer and nearer to the Continent. Henry II, not content with his other extensive Continental possessions outside England, invaded Ireland and received jthe submission of various native chiefs, while John, to com- Ipensate for the lands that he had lost across the Channel, J tried to introduce English law and government throughout Ireland. He did not thoroughly subdue the country, how- lever, and during the remainder of the medieval period the land was in constant turmoil and disorder, and the author- ity of the English king was at most times limited to a small larea around Dublin. Kings of Celtic race had gradually acquired a certain authority over all Scotland. At times they had recognized the overlordship of the English kings, but it was not until 1 29 1 that Edward I took advantage of a disputed succession to the Scotch throne to try to bring that country really under his rule. As a result the Scots formed an alliance with
