The environment
The tactical arena is a dynamic, ever-changing environment. The complexity of this environment makes combat chaotic and unpredictable. As an example of confusion and chaos on the battlefield, consider the amphibious assault on the island of Tarawa in November 1943.
During the assault, the combination of high casualties, lack of effective communications, and disruption of the 2d and 8th Marine Regiments' landings on the assault beaches led to a chaotic and nearly disastrous situation for the 2d Marine Division. Units were decimated under heavy fire. Surviving Marines huddled together under a coconut log sea wall in intermingled units without effective communications. Landing craft carrying reinforcements and supplies could not make it over a coral reef to the landing beaches. Only through daring leadership, initiative, and teamwork were Marines able to get off the beach and annihilate the defending Japanese force.[1]
The violence of combat only increases the level of confusion and chaos. Robert Sherrod, a Time and Life correspondent at Iwo Jima, gave testimony to this chaos in what he called "war at its worst":
The first night on Iwo Jima can only be described as a nightmare in hell. . . . About the beach in the morning lay the
