armies and drive them into base obedience. There is revolution in 1854, after which a national junta is established. Isabel is deposed in 1868, and Amadeo, second son of Victor Emanuel of Italy, is elected king. After vainly striving to reconcile contending factions, in 1872 comes the Carlist war, and the following year Amadeo abdicates, when a republic is proclaimed. The failure of its forces against the Carlists, however, brings round monarchy again in the person of Alfonso, Isabel's son, in 1875.
Altogether this Fernando presents one of the most contemptible characters of history. "The conspirator of the escurial," he has been called, "the rebel of Aranjuez; the robber of his father's crown; the worm squirming at the feet of his enemy at Bayonne; the captive of Valençay, begging bits of colored ribbon from Napoleon while his people were pouring out their blood and gold to give him back his crown; the jailer of the illustrious statesman to whom he owed the restoration of that crown; the perjured villain who spontaneously engaged to be true to the constitution of 1812, and then conspired to overthrow it the day after he had sworn; the promoter of anarchy during the three years of constitutional government; the invoker of the Holy Alliance and the intervention of France; the author of innumerable proscriptions; the coarse voluptuary; Ferdinand leaves no memory but that of a man worthy of our profoundest scorn."
Thus we have seen how at the beginning of the present century all Europe was at war. The most intelligent, civilized, and Christian nations of the earth were hotly engaged in such senseless quarrels as would make a savage smile; and for lack of any other method of settlement, like savages they were falling on each other to kill, burn, or otherwise damage and destroy as best they were able. France in particular was pouring out her best blood and treasure at the caprice of a despot whose paramount aspiration was
