of a landlord; he became more interested in preserving his estate than in fighting for his superiors. The lords found it more difficult to make war because their vassals tried to limit the amount of service which they rendered. In many regions the rule was established that vassals owed only forty days of service a year at their own expense. There was also a tendency to limit free service to defensive operations; vassals claimed that they owed no service outside the district which their lord ruled. But as the chances for conquests decreased the chances to make a profit out of good government increased. Lesser vassals and minor lords were eager to gain protection for their lands; they were good customers for the new legal techniques developed by feudal courts. A ruler who suppressed disorder and encouraged peaceful settlement of disputes was sure of gaining wide support not only from the common people, who had little political influence, but also from the old military class, which was becoming a class of country gentlemen.
II. THE REVIVAL OF THE EMPIRE—GERMANY AND ITALY
No part of Europe escaped invasion and civil war in the century after Charlemagne's death, but Germany suffered less damage than the other Carolingian realms. A poorer country than France or Italy, it was not so attractive to invaders. The specialized fighting class of vassals had not yet taken over all responsibility for military operations, so that it was easier to raise an army in Germany. German peasants could still be used as soldiers and German kings were better generals than their relatives in France and Italy. The invading peoples suffered heavy losses in their conflicts with the Germans. Viking raids almost ceased after a great battle in 891 and the Magyars caused little trouble after their army was almost annihilated by King Otto in 955. German rulers were equally successful in civil war. They succeeded, in spite of the opposition of the French king, in annexing most of the middle kingdom (the Low
