Plant Indicators: the Relation of Plant Communities to Process and Practice
PLANT INDICATORS
THE RELATION OF PLANT COMMUNITIES TO PROCESS AND PRACTICE
By Frederic E. Clements
1
Concept and History
[edit]- Hilgard, 1906 8
- Clements, 1910 9
- Shantz, 1911 10
- Kearney, Briggs, Shantz, McLane, and Piemeisel, 1914 11
- Shantz and Piemeisel, 1917 12
- Shantz and Aldous, 1917 13
- Weaver, 1919 13
Forest Indicators
[edit]- Cajander, 1909 14
- Clements, 1910 14
- Pearson. 1913-1914 15
- Zon, 1915 16
- Hole and Singh, 1916 16
- Korstian, 1917 17
Grazing Indicators
[edit]- Smith, 1899 19
- Bentley. 1902 20
- Griffiths, 1901, 1904, 1907, 1910, 1915.... 21
- Sampson, 1908, 1909, 1913, 1914 22
- Jardine, 1908, 1909, 1910, 1913 23
- Wooton, 1915, 1916 23
- Jardine and Hurtt. 1917 24
- Jardine and Anderson, 1919 24
- Sarvis, 1919 25
Chresard and Water Requirement Studies
[edit]- Significance 26
- The chresard 26
- Gain, 1895 26
- Kihlmann, 1890 27
- Briggs and Shantz, 1912 27
- The water requirement 28
Concept
[edit]- General 28
- Animals as indicators 29
- Plant and community 29
- Sequences 30
- Direct and indirect sequences 31
- Direction of indication 32
- Scope 32
- Materials 33
- Basing studies 34
Bases and Criteria
[edit]Bases and Methods of Determination
[edit]- Fundamental relations 35
The Physical Basis
[edit]- Direct and indirect factors 36
- Controlling and limiting factors 36
- Climatic and edaphic factors 37
- Climates and habitats 38
- Variation of climate and habitat 39
- Inversion of factors 40
- Measurement of habitats 42
The Physiological Basis
[edit]- Kinds of response 43
- Effect of habit 43
- Individuality in response 44
- Effect of extreme conditions 44
- Phytometers 46
The Associational Basis
[edit]- Nature of association 47
- Dominants 47
- Equivalence of dominants 48
- Absence of dominants 49
- Subdominants 50
- Secondary species 51
- Plant and animal association 51
The Successional Basis
[edit]- Scope 51
- Sequence of indicators 52
- Major successions as indicators 53
The Experimental Basis
[edit]- Nature 53
- Essentials 54
Indicator Criteria
[edit]- Nature and kinds of criteria 55
- Species and genera 65
Life-Forms.
[edit]- History 57
- Pound and Clements, 1898-1900 57
- Raunkiaer, 1905 58
- Warming. 1908 69
- Drude. 1913 60
- Comparison of the systems 62
- Vegetation-forms 62
- Indicator significance of vegetation-forms 63
Habitat-Forms
[edit]- Concept and history 64
- Warming's system 64
- Modifications of Warming's system 65
- Indicator value 66
- Ecads 67
Growth-Forms
[edit]- Nature 68
- Kinds 69
- Indicator relations 69
- Standard plants for growth correlations 70
- Competition-forms 71
Communities as Indicators
[edit]- Value 72
- Kinds of communities 72
- Community structures 73
- Alternes 73
- Layers 74
- Aspects 75
Kinds of Indicators
[edit]- Basis of distinction 76
Factor Indicators
[edit]- Basis and kinds 76
- Quantitative sequences 77
- Climatic and edaphic indicators 77
- Water indicators 78
- Light indicators 79
- Temperature indicators 81
- Indicators of solutes 83
- Saline indicators 83
- Lime indicators 84
- Aeration indicators 85
- Indicators of factor-complexes 88
- Soil indicators 88
- Slope-exposure indicators 88
- Altitude indicators 89
- Organism indicators 90
Process Indicators
[edit]- Nature 91
- Kinds 91
- Fire indicators 92
- Lumbering indicators 93
- Cultivation indicators 93
- Grazing indicators 94
- Indicators of irrigation and drainage 95
- Construction indicators 96
- Physiographic indicators 97
- Climatic indicators 97
Practice Indicators
[edit]- Nature and kinds 98
Paleic Indicators
[edit]- Paleo-ecology 99
- Nature of paleic indicators 100
- Kinds 101
- Paleic indicators of climates and cycles 103
- Paleic indicators of succession 103
- Plant indicators of animals 104
- Animal indicators of plants 104
Climax Formations Of Western North America
[edit]- Nature 105
- Tests of a climax 105
- Structure and development 106
- Societies 107
- Names of climax communities 109
- Seral communities 109
- Indicator significance of climax formations 111
- Significance of succession 111
- Indicator value of disturbed areas 112
- Summary of the climax formations 113
The Grassland Climax
[edit]Stipa-Bouteloua Formation
[edit]- General relations 114
- Unity of the grassland 116
- Correlation with climate 116
- Use of weather records 116
- Relationship of associations 118
- Floristic relations 119
- Ecological relations 120
- Subdominants 120
- Developmental relations 121
The True Prairie
[edit]Stipa-Koeleria Association
[edit]- Extent 121
- Factor relations 123
- Sequence of dominants 123
Societies
[edit]- Nature 125
- Control of dominants 125
- Relation to consociation 126
- Origin 126
- Mixed societies 127
- Aspects 127
- Zones and alternes 128
- Studies of prairie societies 129
Clans
[edit]- Vernal clans 131
- Estival clans 131
- Serotinal clans 131
The Subclimax Prairie
[edit]Andropogon Associes
[edit]- Nature 131
- Range 132
- Factor relations 133
- Sequence 133
- Grouping 134
Societies and Clans
[edit]The Mixed Prairie
[edit]Stipa-Borteloua Association
[edit]- Nature 135
- Effect of grazing and climatic cycles 135
- Range 136
- Grouping 137
- Sequence of dominants 138
Societies of the Mixed Prairie
[edit]- Prevernal societies 139
- Vernal societies 139
- Estival societies 139
- Serotinal societies 139
The Short-Grass Plains
[edit]Bulbilis-Bouteloua Association
[edit]- Nature 139
- Range 140
- Grouping of dominants 141
- Factor relations 142
- Sequence of dominants 142
Societies
[edit]- Prevernal societies 143
- Vernal societies 143
- Estival societies 143
- Serotinal societies 144
Clans
[edit]- Prevernal clans 144
- Vernal clans 144
- Estival clans 144
- Serotinal clans 144
The Desert Plains
[edit]Aristida-Bouteloua Association
[edit]- Nature 144
- Range 145
- Rank of dominants 146
- Grouping of dominants 146
- Sequence of dominants 147
Societies
[edit]- Vernal societies 148
- Estival societies 148
- Serotinal societies 149
Clans
[edit]The Bunch-Grass Prairie
[edit]Agropyrum-Stipa Association
[edit]- Nature 149
- Range 149
- Factor relations and sequence 151
Societies
[edit]- Prevernal societies 152
- Vernal societies 152
- Estival societies 152
- Serotinal societies 152
Clans
[edit]- Prevernal clans 152
- Vernal clans 152
- Estival clans 152
- Serotinal clans 152
The Sagebrush Climax
[edit]Atriplex-Artemisia Formation
[edit]- Nature 152
- Unity of the formation 153
- Range 154
- Subclimax sagebrush 155
- Associations 156
The Basin Sagebrush
[edit]Atriplex-Artemisia Association
[edit]- Range 156
- Rank and grouping 157
- Correlations 158
- Successional sequence 159
Societies
[edit]- Grass communities appearing as societies 160
- Vernal societies 160
- Estival societies 160
- Serotinal societies 160
The Coastal Sagebrush
[edit]Salvia-Artemisia Association
[edit]- Range 160
The Desert Scrub Climax
[edit]Larrea-Prosopis Formation
[edit]- Nature 162
- Range 163
- Unity of the formation 163
- Structure of the formation 165
Summary of Dominants
[edit]- Associations 166
- Relation to other formations 167
The Eastern Desert Scrub
[edit]Larrea-Flourensia Association
[edit]- Correlations and sequence 168
Societies
[edit]The Western Desert Scrub
[edit]Larrea-Franseria Association
[edit]- Nature 170
- Extent 171
- Structure 172
- Groupings 172
- Factor relations 173
- Successional relations 174
- Root relations 176
Societies and Clans
[edit]The Chaparrel Climax
[edit]Quercus-Ceanothus Formation
[edit]- Nature 177
- Unity of the chaparral formation 178
- Climatic relations 178
- Origin and succession 179
- Range and extent 180
- Structure of the formation 181
- Grouping of dominants 181
- Associations 183
The Petran Chaparral
[edit]Cercocarpus-Quercus Assoeiaiion
[edit]- Nature and extent 183
- Contacts 184
- Groupings 185
- Equivalence of dominants 186
Societies
[edit]- Vernal societies 187
- Estival societies 187
- Serotinal societies 187
The Subclimax Chapparral
[edit]Rhus-Quercus Associes.
[edit]- Nature 187
- Extent and contacts 188
- Groupings 189
- Relations of the dominants 189
Societies
[edit]The Coastal Chapparal
[edit]Adenostoma-Ceanothus Association
[edit]- Nature and extent 190
- Groupings 191
- Factor and seral relations 192
Societies
[edit]- Prevernal societies 193
- Vernal societies 193
- Estival societies 193
The Woodland Climax
[edit]Pinus-Juniperus Formation
[edit]- Nature 193
- Range and extent 194
- Unity of the formation 195
- Structure of the formation 196
- Contacts 197
The Pinon-Cedar Woodland
[edit]Pinus-Juniperus Association
[edit]- Nature and extent 197
Societies
[edit]- Shade societies 199
The Oak-Cedar Woodland
[edit]Quercus-Juniperus Aasociation
[edit]- Nature and extent 200
- Factor relations 201
Societies
[edit]- Shade societies 202
The Pine-Oak Woodland
[edit]Pinus-Quercus Aaaociation
[edit]- Nature and extent 202
The Montane Forest Climax
[edit]Pinus-Pseudotsuga Formation
[edit]- Nature 205
- Extent 205
- Unity of the formation 205
- Relationship and contacts 206
- Associations 207
The Petran Montane Forest
[edit]Pinus-Pseudotsuga Aaaociation
[edit]- Extent 207
- Groupings 208
- Factor relations 209
- Seral relations 209
Societies and Clans
[edit]The Sierra Montane Forest
[edit]Pinus Association
[edit]- Extent 211
- Groupings 212
- Factor and sersd relations 212
Societies
[edit]- Shrubs 213
- Herbs 214
The Coast Forest Climax
[edit]Thuja-Tsuga Formation
[edit]- Nature 214
- Extent 214
- Unity 215
- Relationship and contacts 215
- Associations 216
The Cedar-Hemlock Forest
[edit]Thuja-Tsuga Association
[edit]- Nature and extent 217
- Groupings 217
- Factor and seral relations 218
Societies
[edit]- Shrubs 219
- Herbs 219
The Larch-Pine Forest
[edit]Larix-Pinus Association
[edit]- Nature and extent 219
- Groupings 220
- Factor and serai relations 220
Societies
[edit]The Subalpine Forest Climax
[edit]Picea-Abies Formation
[edit]- Nature 222
- Extent 222
- Unity 222
- Relationship and contacts 223
- Associations 224
The Petran Subalpine Forest
[edit]Picea-Abies Association
[edit]- Extent 224
- Groupings 225
- Factor and seral relations 225
====Societies====
The Sierran Subalpine Forest
[edit]Pinus-Tsuga Association
[edit]- Extent 226
- Groupings 227
- Factor and serai relations 228
Societies
[edit]The Alpine Meadow Climax
[edit]Carex-Poa Formation
[edit]- Nature 228
- Extent 229
- Unity 229
- Relationship and contacts 230
- Associations 231
The Petran Alpine Meadow
[edit]Carex-Poa Association
[edit]- Extent 232
- Dominants.
- Groupings 232
- Factor and seral relations 233
Societies
[edit]- Vernal societies 234
- Estival societies 234
The Sierran Alpine Meadow
[edit]Carex-Agrostis Association
[edit]- Extent 234
Dominants
[edit]- Groupings 235
- Factor and seral relations 235
Societies
[edit]Agricultural Indicators
[edit]- General relations 237
Land Classification
[edit]- Nature 237
- Relation to practices 238
- Proposed bases of classification 238
- The indicator method of land classification 240
- Use of climax indicators 240
- Soil indicators 241
- Shantz's results 242
A System of Land Classification
[edit]- Bases 245
- Classification and use 245
- Methods 246
Climatic Cycles
[edit]- Nature 247
- The 11-year cycle 247
- Evidences 248
- Periods of drought 250
- Recurrence of drought periods 251
- Significance of the sun-spot cycle 252
- Prediction of drought periods 253
- Utilization of cycles 254
Farming Indicators
[edit]- Types of farming 255
- Relation of types of farming to indicators 255
- Edaphic indicators of types of farming 256
Crop Indicators
[edit]- Nature and kinds 257
- Climatic indicators of the types of crops 258
- Climatic indicators of kinds of crops 259
- Climatic indicators of varieties 259
- Life zones and crop zones 260
- Edaphic indicators of crops and methods 261
- Indicators of native or ruderal forage crops 262
Agricultural Practice and Climatic Cycles
[edit]- Cycles of production 262
- The excess-deficit balance 264
- Anticipation of cycles 266
Grazing Indicators
[edit]- Kinds of grazing 270
Grazing Types
[edit]- Kinds of grazing indicators 271
- Significance of climax types 272
- Formations as indicators 273
- Associations as indicators 273
- Consociations as indicators 274
- Local grazing types 275
- Savannah as an indicator 276
- Kinds of savannah 278
- Savannah in relation to fire and grazing 279
- Significance of seral types 279
- Prisere communities as indicators 280
- Subsere communities as indicators 282
- Fire indicators and grazing 283
Carrying Capacity
[edit]- Nature and significance 284
- Determining factors 284
- Relation to communities and dominants 285
- Nutrition content 286
- Relation to climatic cycles 292
- Relation to rodents 293
- Relation to herd and management. 293
- Measurement of carrying capacity 294
- Present and potential carrying capacity 295
Overgrazing
[edit]- Nature 295
- Causes 297
- Indicators of Overgrazing 297
- Societies as indicators 298
- Halfshrubs as indicators 299
- Cacti as indicators 300
- Shrubs as indicators 300
- Annuals as indicators 301
- Prairie and plains indicators 302
- Desert plains indicators 302
- Bunch-grass prairie indicators 303
- Great Basin indicators 304
- Overgrazing in the past 304
- Succession and cycles 307
- Relation of tall-grasses and short-grasses 308
- Overgrazing cycles 309
Range Improvement
[edit]- History 310
- Prerequistes 311
- Essential factors 312
- Proper stocking 312
- Rotation grazing 314
- Rodent eradication 316
- Eradication of poisonous plants 317
- Eradication of weeds and cacti 319
- Eradication of brush 320
- Manipulation of the range 321
- Plant introduction on the range 322
- Prerequisites for seeding and planting 324
- New investigations 326
- Forage development 327
- Water development 328
- Herd management 329
Essentials of a Grazing Policy
[edit]- A proper land system 330
- Essentials 330
- The Kent grazing bill 331
- Classification and range surveys 334
- Production cycles 334
- Ranch management surveys 335
Forest Indicators
[edit]- Nature 336
- Kinds of indicators 336
Forest Types
[edit]- Bases 337
- Comparison of views 342
- Forest sites 343
- Succession as a basis 344
- Significance 345
Climatic and Edaphic Indicators
[edit]- Climatic indicators 345
- Edaphic indicators 348
- Water-content indicators 348
- Light indicators 349
- Site indicators 349
- Growth as an indicator 360
- Burn indicators 353
- Grazing indicators 355
- Cycle indicators 367
Planting Indicators
[edit]- Kinds 357
- Prerequisites for planting and sowing 358
- Use of climatic cycles 359
- Reforestation indicators 369
- Afforestation indicators 362
Bibliography 364
[edit]==Index 375==