Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning/Chapter 1
REFLECTIONS
UPON
Ancient and Modern
LEARNING.
CHAP. 1.
General Reflections upon the State of the Question.
The present State of the Designs and Studies of Mankind is so very different from what it was 150 Years ago, that it is no Wonder if Men's Notions concerning them vary as much as the Things themselves. This great Difference arises from the Desire which every Man has, who believes that he can do greater Things than his Neighbours, of letting them see how much he does excel them: This will oblige him to omit no Opportunity that offers it self to do it, and afterwards to express his Satisfaction that he has done it. This is not only visible in particular Persons, but in the several Ages of Mankind, which are only Communities of particular Persons, living at the same time, as often as their Humours, or their Interests, lead them to pursue the same Methods. This Emulation equally shews it self, whatsoever the Subject be, about which it is employed; whether it be about Matters of Trade, or War, or Learning, it is all one: One Nation will strive to out-do another, and so will one Age too, when several Nations agree in the pursuit of the same Design; only the Jealousie is not so great in the Contest for Learning, as it is in that for Riches and Power; because these are Things which every several People strive to ingross all to themselves, so that it is impossible for bordering Nations to suffer with any Patience that their Neighbours should grow as great as they in either of them, to their own prejudice; though they will all agree in raising the Credit of the Age they live in upon that Account, that being the only Thing wherein their Interests do perfectly unite.
If this Way of Reasoning will bold, it may be asked how it comes to pass, that the Learned Men of the last Age did not pretend that they out-did the Ancients, as well as some do now? They would, without question, could they have had any Colour for it: It was the Work of one Age to remove the Rubbish, and to clear the Way for future Inventors. Men seldom strive for Mastery, where the Superiority is not in some sort disputable; then it is that they begin to strive; accordingly, as soon as there was a fair Pretence for such a Dispute, there were not wanting those who soon made the most of it, both by exalting their own Performances, and disparaging every Thing that had been done of that kind by their Predecessors: 'Till the new Philosophy had gotten Ground in the World, this was done very sparingly; which is but within the Compass of 40 or 50 Years. There were but few before, who would be thought to have exceeded the Ancients, unless it were some few Physicians, who set up Chymical Methods of Practice, and Theories of Diseases, founded upon Chymical Notions, in opposition to the Galenical: But these Men, for want of conversing much out of their own Laboratories, were unable to maintain their Cause to the general Conviction of Mankind: The Credit of the Cures which they wrought, not supporting them enough against the Reasonings of their Adversaries.
Soon after the Restauration of King Charles II. upon the Institution of the Royal Society, the Comparative Excellency of the Old and New Philosophy was eagerly debated in England. But the Disputes then managed between Stubbe and Glanvile, were rather Personal, relating to the Royal Society, than General, relating to Knowledge in its utmost extent. In France this Controversie has been taken up more at large: The French were not satisfied to argue the Point in Philosophy and Mathematicks, but even in Poetry and Oratory too; where the Ancients had the general Prejudice of the Learned on their Side. Monsieur de Fontenelle, the celebrated Author of a Book concerning the Plurality of Worlds, begun the Dispute about six Years ago, in a little Discourse annexed to his Pastorals. He is something shy in declaring his Mind; at least, in arraigning the Ancients, whose Reputations were already established; though it is plain he would be understood to give the Moderns the Preference in Poetry and Oratory, as well as in Philosophy and Mathematicks. His Book being received with great Applause, it was opposed in England by Sir William Temple, who, in the Second Part of his Miscellanea, has printed an Essay upon this very Subject. Had Monsieur de Fontenelle's Discourse passed unquestioned, it would have been very strange, since there never was a new Notion started in the World, but some were found, who did as eagerly contradict it.
The Opinion which Sir William Temple appears for, is received by so great a Number of Learned Men, that those who oppose it ought to bring much more than a positive Affirmation; otherwise, they cannot expect that the World should give Judgment in their Favour. The Question now to be asked, has formerly been enquired into by few, besides those who have chiefly valued Oratory, Poesie, and all that which the French call the Belles Lettres; that is to say, all those Arts of Eloquence, wherein the Ancients are generally agreed to have been very excellent. So that Monsieur de Fontenelle took the wrong Course to have his Paradox be believed; for he asserts all, and proves little; he makes no Induction of Particulars, and rarely enters into the Merits of the Cause: He declares that he thinks Love of Ease to be the reigning Principle amongst Mankind; for which Reason perhaps he was loath to put himself to the trouble of being too minute. It was no wonder therefore if those to whom his Proposition appeared entirely new, condemned him of Sufficiency, the worst Composition out of the Pride and Ignorance of Mankind.
However, since his Reasonings are, generally speaking, very just, especially where he discourses of the Comparative Force of the Genius's of Men in the several Ages of the World, I resolved to make some Enquiry into the Particulars of those Things which are asserted by some to be Modern Discoveries, and vindicated to the Ancients by others.
The General Proposition which Sir William Temple endeavours to prove in this Essay, is this, "That if we reflect upon the Advantages which the ancient Greeks and Romans had, to improve themselves in Arts and Sciences, above what the Moderns can pretend to; and upon that natural Force of Genius, so discernable in the earliest Writers, whose Books are still extant, which has not been equalled in any Persons that have set up for Promoters of Knowledge in these latter Ages, and compare the Actual Performances of them both together, we ought in Justice to conclude, that the Learning of the present Age, is only a faint, imperfect Copy from the Knowledge of former Times, such as could be taken from those scattered Fragments which were saved out of the general Shipwreck."
The Question that arises from this Proposition will be fully understood, if we enquire, (1.) Into those Things which the Ancients may have been supposed to bring to Perfection, (in case they did so) not because they excelled those that came after them in Understanding, but because they got the Start by being born first. (2.) Whether there are any Arts or Sciences which were more perfectly practised by the Ancients, though all imaginable Care hath been since used to equal them. (3.) Whether there may not be others wherein they are exceeded by the Moderns, though we may reasonably suppose that both Sides did as well as they could.
When such Enquiries have once been made, it will be no hard matter to draw such Inferences afterwards, as will enable us to do Justice to both Sides.
It must be owned, that these Enquiries do not immediately resolve the Question which Sir William Temple put, for he confounds two very different Things together; namely, Who were the Greatest Men, the Ancients, or the Moderns? and, Who have carried their Enquiries furthest? The first is a very proper Question for a Declamation, though not so proper for a Discourse, wherein Men are supposed to reason severely, because, for want of Mediums whereon to found an Argument, it cannot easily be decided: For, though there be no surer Way of judging of the Comparative Force of the Genius's of several Men, than by examining the respective Beauty or Subtilty of their Performances; yet the good Fortune of appearing first, added to the Misfortune of wanting a Guide, gives the first Comers so great an Advantage, that though, for instance, the Fairy Queen, or Paradise Lost, may be thought by some to be better Poems than the Ilias; yet the same Persons will not say but that Homer was a greater Genius than either Spencer or Milton. And besides, when Men judge of the Greatness of an Inventor's Genius barely by the Subtilty and Curiosity of his Inventions, they may be very liable to Mistakes in their Judgments, unless they knew, and were able to judge of the Easiness or Difficulty of those Methods, or Ratiocinations, by which these Men arrived at, and perfected these their Inventions; which, with due Allowances, is equally applicable to any Performances in Matters of Learning of any sort.
It will however be some Satisfaction to those who are concerned for the Glory of the Age in which they live, if, in the first place, it can be proved, That as there are some parts of real and useful Knowledge, wherein not only great Strictness of Reasoning, but Force and Extent of Thought is required thoroughly to comprehend what is already invented, much more to make any considerable Improvements, so that there can be no Dispute of the Strength of such Men's Understandings, who are able to make such Improvements; so in those very Things, such, and so great Discoveries have been made, as will oblige impartial Judges to acknowledge, that there is no probability that the World decays in Vigour and Strength, if (according to Sir William Temple's Hypothesis) we take our Estimate from the Measure of those Men's Parts, who have made these Advancements in these later Years; especially, if it should be found that the Ancients took a great deal of pains upon these very Subjects, and had able Masters to instruct them at their first setting out: And Secondly, If it should be proved, that there are other curious and useful Parts of Knowledge, wherein the Ancients had equal Opportunities of advancing and pursuing their Enquiries, with as much Facility as the Moderns, which were either slightly passed over, or wholly neglected, if we set the Labours of some few Men aside: And Lastly, If it should be proved, that by some great and happy Inventions, wholly unknown to former Ages, new and spacious Fields of Knowledge have been discovered, and, pursuant to those Discoveries, have been viewed, and searched into, with all the Care and Exactness which such noble Theories required. If these Three Things should be done, both Questions would be at once resolved, and Sir William Temple would see that the Moderns have done something more than Copy from their Teachers, and that there is no absolute necessity of making all those melancholy Reflections upon (a) Pag. 5. 55, 56.(a) the Sufficiency and Ignorance of the present Age, which he, moved with a just Resentment and Indignation, has thought fit to bestow upon them.
How far these Things can, or cannot be proved, shall be my Business in these following Papers to enquire. But First, Of those Things wherein, if the Ancients have so far excelled as to bring them to Perfection, it may be thought that they did it because they were born before us.