Roman Public Life
Handbooks of
Archaeology and Antiquities
ROMAN PUBLIC LIFE
ROMAN PUBLIC LIFE
BY
A. H. J. GREENIDGE, M.A.
LECTURER AND LATE FELLOW OF HERTFORD COLLEGE, AND
LECTURER IN ANCIENT HISTORY AT BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD
London
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1901
All rights reserved
To
M. L. P.
J. T. W. G.
AND
J. E. G. H.
The object of this work is to trace the growth of the Roman constitution, and to explain its working during the two phases of its maturity, the developed Republic and the Principate. The title selected perhaps expresses more succinctly than any other could do the nature of the plan which I wished to undertake. My desire was to touch, however briefly, on all the important aspects of public life, central, municipal, and provincial; and, thus, to exhibit the political genius of the Roman in connexion with all the chief problems of administration which it attempted to solve. This design, like many other comprehensive plans which have to be adapted to the limits of a single volume, was necessarily subjected to modifications in detail; and, since one of these modifications has affected the whole scope of the book, it requires some mention in a preface.
I had intended to carry the treatment of my subject beyond the confines of the Principate, and to describe the political organisation of the later Empire as elaborated by Diocletian and his successors. I found, however, that a discussion of this period would cause my work to exceed the reasonable limits which can be conceded to a handbook, and I was forced to abandon the enterprise much against my will. I was somewhat comforted in this surrender by the suggestion that the constitution of the later Empire was perhaps not strictly "Roman." This is a verdict with which I agree in part. The organisation which had Constantinople as its centre was certainly the organisation of an Empire which was permeated with the social ideals of later Rome, which had adopted a Latin code, and which employed an administrative system whose origin was to be found in Italy; but in the forms of rule which the monarchy presented the break with the past was remarkable. The absolutism was no new thing, but the guise assumed by this absolutism was startlingly novel. It is not only that classic traditions were forgotten, that, as Gibbon says, "the purity of the Latin language was debased by adopting, in the intercourse of pride and flattery, a profusion of epithets, which Tully would have scarcely understood, and which Augustus would have rejected with indignation," but that, even where the continuity in public institutions can be traced, it is one of names rather than of ideas. In the Principate we see a perverted Republic; in the monarchy a Res publica only in the narrowest etymological sense of those words. Perhaps the accession of Diocletian does, after all, mark the close of a true "Roman" public life.
The task, even as thus limited, has been a long one, and would have been still longer had it not been for the kindly assistance rendered me by a former pupil, Miss Muriel Clay, of Lady Margaret Hall. The help which she has given in the reading of the proofs, and in the verification of the references to original authorities, has not only facilitated the production of the book, but has materially improved it by the removal of errors and obscurities. I have also to thank her for the Index of subjects and the Index of Latin words which accompany the volume.
A. H. J. G.
Oxford, April 1901.
CONTENTS
(The references are to the pages)
The Growth of the City
1. Early Italian associations; the pagus, vicus, gens, 1. Growth of the city of Rome, 2. Foreign influences on Roman life, 3.
The Elements of the Population—Patricians, Plebeians, Clients
2. Origin of the Patricians, 4; of the Plebeians, 5. Clientship, 7.
Roman Family Organisation
3. The gens, 9. The familia, 18. The nexus, 24. Slavery, 24. Transmission of property and forms of testament, 26. Caput, 31. Capitis deminutio, 32.
The Citizens and the Political Subdivisions of the State
4. The populus Romanus, 33. Rights of the citizen, 35. Auspicium, 36. The tribes, 40. The army, 41. The curiae, 41.
The Monarchical Constitution
5. Relation of the king to the people, 42. Titles and insignia of the king, 44. Mode of appointment of the king, 45. Religious character of the monarchy, 51. The rule of fas, 52. Civil powers of the king, 57. The Senate of the monarchy, 58. Consilia of the king, 61. Delegates of the king, 61. Jurisdiction of the monarchy, 62.
The Servian Constitution
6. Social changes that led to the Servian reform, 65. The Servian tribes, 66. Registration for military purposes; the new organisation of the army, 68. The census, 69. Transference of political rights to the new assembly of the centuries, 75. The close of the monarchy, 76.
Institution of consuls and limitation of the imperium, 78. Appointment of quaestors, 80. The Senate of the early Republic, 81. Creation of the dictatorship, 84. Government of the patrician aristocracy, 85. Rights of the plebeians, 87. Social struggles of the plebs, 89. Creation of the tribunate, 93. The powers of the tribuni plebs, 94. The concilium plebis, 96. The aediles of the plebs, 97. The sacrosanctitas of the plebeian magistrates, 99. The concilium plebis meets by tribes, 100. Creation of a comitia tributa, 102. Agitation for the publication of a code, 102. The Twelve Tables, 104. Attempt at despotism made by the decemvirs, 107. The Valerio-Horatian laws, 108. Intermarriage permitted between the orders, 111. Institution of tribuni militum consulari potestate, 112. Institution of the censorship, 115. Struggle for the consulship, 118. The Licinio-Sextian laws, 119. Institution of the praetorship and the curule aedileship, 120. Admission of the plebeians to office, 122; and to the religious colleges, 123. Rights secured to the plebs by the leges Publiliae and the lex Hortensia, 124. Results of the tendencies of plebeian emancipation, 127. The new nobility, 129. Continued distinction between the orders, 131.
The Classes of the Population
1. Modes of acquiring citizenship, 132. Modes of enfranchisement, 134. Ingenuitas, 135. Rights and duties of the citizen, 136. Developed conception of capitis deminutio, 138. Changes in the Roman family, 140. The condition of the slave, 141. The freedmen, 144.
The Theory of the Constitution
2. Complexity of the constitution, 146. Theory of the state as revealed in the interregnum, 147. Separate existence of the plebs, 149. The weakening of the magistracy and the resulting ascendancy of the Senate, 150.
General Characteristics of the Magistracy
1. Imperium and potestas, 152. Administrative powers of the magistrates, 152. Military powers, 153. The right to triumph, 156. Powers exercised in connexion with the people, 158. The contio and the comitia, 159. Right of acting with the plebs, 161. The right of consulting the Senate, 161. General powers of the magistrates; the auspicia, 162. The coercitio, 167. Conflict between the powers of the magistrates; the obnuntiatio, 172. The right of prohibition, 173. The intercessio, 176. The civil and criminal responsibility of magistrates, 181. The qualifications for office, 183. The formalities of candidature and election, 187. The insignia of office, 191.
The Individual Magistracies
2. The dictator, 191. The magister equitum, 195. The consuls, 196. The praetors, 202. The aediles, 208. The quaestors, 212. The censors, 216. The plebeian magistrates, 233. The minor magistrates, 234.
Legislation, 238. Form of a lex, 242. Control of external matters, 243. Elective powers, 245. Judicial powers, 245. Rescission of sentences by the people, 248. Remission of outlawry and amnesty, 249. Grounds of invalidity of popular acts, 249. The different comitia; the comitia curiata, 250. The comitia centuriata and its reorganisation, 252. The comitia tributa, 253. The concilium plebis, 253. Elections to the religious colleges, 254. Formalities observed in the meetings of the assemblies, 255.
Reasons for the growth of the Senate's power, 261. Method of appointment of senators, 263. External distinctions of senators, 265. Reforms of Sulla, 266. Rules of initiative and debate in the Senate, 267. The senatus consultum and senatus auctoritas, 272. Powers of the Senate; its probouleutic authority, 273. Suspension of magistrates, 275. Quasi-legislative power, 275. Power of exempting from laws, 276. Revising power, 276. Influence on jurisdiction, 277. Appointment of special commissions, 278. Declaration of martial law, 279. Police control, 282. Control of foreign policy, 282. Control of finance, 286. Control of religion, 287.
Difference between the Greek and Italian conceptions of international law, 289. International customs of Rome, 290. International relations with foreign states, 292. The jus gentium, 294. The federation of Latium, 295. Extension of the league and change in its character, 296. The organisation of Italy; cives and socii, 299. Proposals to extend the franchise, 310. Settlement after the social war, 312. Incorporation of Cisalpine Gaul, 314.
Origin of provincial government, 316. The conception of a provincia, 317. Free and allied cities, 317. Stipendiariae civitates; the lex provinciae, 318. Taxation, 319. The governor and his staff, 322. The spheres of administration, 324. Jurisdiction, 325. The provincial edict, 326. General estimate of provincial government, 328.
Objects of the party of reform, 331. Elements in the party of reform, 332. The balance of parties; the equites, 333. The issue of the struggle, 334. The sole rule of Caesar, 336. The Triumvirate and the establishment of the Principate, 338.
The Powers of the Princeps
1. The chief bases of the Princeps' authority; the proconsulare imperium and the tribunicia potestas; nature of the imperium, 341. Powers connected with the imperium, 344. Powers connected with the tribunicia potestas, 346. The Princeps as consul, 347; as censor, 347. Extraordinary rights conferred on the Princeps, 348. Dispensation from laws, 350. The Princeps as head of the state religion, 350.
Titles, Insignia, and Honours of the Princeps
2. Appellatives and titles, 351. Insignia, 355. Other honours, 355. The domus Caesaris, 356. Amici and comites, 357.
Creation, Transmission, and Abrogation of the Principate
3. Election of a Princeps, 358. Designation of a successor, 360. Hereditary succession, 362. Deposition of a Princeps, 362. Recognition of a reign, 363.
The Other Powers in the State—the Magistracy, The Comitia, and the Senate
4. The magistracy, 363. The individual magistrates, 367. The comitia 371. The Senate, 373.
The Chief Departments of the State; the Dual Control of Senate and Princeps
5. The dyarchy, 377. Legislation; legislative power of the comitia, 377. Quasi-legislative power of the Senate, 377; of the Princeps, 378. Jurisdiction, 381. Division of civil jurisdiction, 382. The civil courts of appeal, 382. The appeal from the provinces, 385. Criminal jurisdiction, 386. The criminal courts of appeal, 390. The power of pardon, 391. The dyarchy in administration, 393; in finance, 394; in the control of cultus, 397; in the control of coinage, 397. The extent to which the dyarchy was a reality, 397.
The Senatorial and the Equestrian Nobility
6. The senatorial order, 399. The equestrian order, 402.
The Functionaries of the Princeps
7. The praefects, 406. Praefectus urbi, 406. Praefectus praetorio, 409. Praefectus annonae, 411. Praefectus vigilum, 412. The curators, 413. The procurators, 414. Personal assistants; the imperial secretariate 418. The imperial consilium, 420.
The Organisation of Italy
1. Division into regions, 422. The downfall of the comitia, 423. Limitations on local jurisdiction, 423. Institution of curatores, 424; of correctores, 424. The alimentarium, 425.
The Organisation of the Provinces
2. General character of the changes introduced by the Principate, 426. The public and the imperial provinces, 427. Change in the condition of the free and allied cities, 428. Methods of conferring immunity; the jus Italicum, 429. Taxation, 429. Method of government in the public provinces, 432; in the imperial provinces, 434. Procuratorial governorships, 432. Government of the German provinces and of Egypt, 435. Romanisation of the provinces, 436. Change in the condition of the provincial towns, 437. The munera of their citizens and of the decurions, 439.
The Worship of the Emperor
3. Origin and character of Caesar-worship, 440. Its extension, 441. Its effects, 442.
The two Assemblies of the Tribes, 445
A Limitation of the Tribunate in the Reign of Nero, 447
(i.) of subjects 453
(ii.) of Latin words 457
(iii.) of passages from ancient authors referred to in the text 467
[Collapsed Section]
1. THE POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS OF ROME
Herzog, E.—Geschichte und System der römischen Staatsverfassung. Leipzig,
1884-91.
Karlowa, O.—Römische Rechtsgeschichte, Bd. I. ("Staatsrecht und Rechtsquellen"). Leipzig, 1885.
Lange, L.—Römische Alterthümer. Berlin, 1856-71.
Madvig, J.—Die Verfassung und Verwaltung des römischen Staates. Leipzig, 1881-82.
Mispoulet, J.—Les institutions politiques des Romains. Paris, 1882-83.
Mommsen, Th.—Römisches Staatsrecht. Bd. I. ("die Magistratur"), II. Abt. i. ("die einzelen Magistraturen"), II. Abt. ii. ("der Principat"), III. ("Bürgerschaft und Senat"). Leipzig, 1887-88.
Mommsen, Th.—Abriss des römischen Staatsrechts. Leipzig, 1893.
Rubino, J.—Untersuchungen über römische Verfassung und Geschichte. Cassel, 1839.
Schiller, H.—"Staats- und Rechtsaltertümer" (Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft, herausg. von Dr. Iwan von Müller, Bd. IV. Abt. ii.). München, 1893.
Willems, P.—Le droit public Romain. Louvain, Paris, 1888.
Zoeller, M.—Römische Staats- und Rechtsaltertümer. Breslau, 1895.
2. THE CITY OF ROME, THE MONARCHY AND THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME
Bernhoeft, F.—Staat und Recht der römischen Königszeit im Verhältniss zu verwandten Rechten. Stuttgart, 1882.
Dyer, T.—The History of the Kings of Rome. With a prefatory dissertation on its sources and evidence. London, 1868.
Gilbert, O.—Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom. Leipzig, 1883.
Ihne, W.—"Early Rome, from the foundation of the city to its destruction by the Gauls" (Epochs of Ancient History). London, 1876.
Lanciani, R.—Ancient Rome in the light of recent discoveries. London, 1888.
Lanciani, R.—The ruins and excavations of ancient Rome. London, 1897.
Lewis, G.—An inquiry into the credibility of the early Roman history. London, 1855.
Middleton, J.—The remains of ancient Rome. London and Edinburgh, 1892.
Pais, E.—Storia di Roma. Turin, 1898-99.
Poehlmann, R.—Die Anfänge Roms. Erlangen, 1881.
Richter, O.—Art. "Rom" (Baumeister, A.—Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums). München, Leipzig, 1889.
Rubino, J.—Untersuchungen (Abschn. ii. "von dem Königthume"). Cassel, 1839.
Schwegler, A.—Römische Geschichte im Zeitalter des Kampfs der Stände. Tübingen, 1853-58.
3. THE SENATE
Mommsen, Th.—Römische Forschungen, Bd. I. Berlin, 1879.
Rubino, J.—Untersuchungen (Abschn. iii. "von dem Senate und dem Patriciate"). Cassel, 1839.
Willems, P.—Le Sénat de la République Romaine. Louvain, 1883-85.
4. THE EQUITES
Belot, E.—Histoire des chevaliers Romains considerée dans ses rapports ave les différentes constitutions de Rome. Paris, 1869-73.
Marquardt, J.—Historiae equitum Romanorum libri quattuor. Berlin 1840.
5. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES
Borgeaud, C.—Le plébiscite dans l'antiquité. Grèce et Rome. Geneva, 1886.
Huschke, P.—Die Verfassung des Königs Servius Tullius als Grundlage zu einer römischen Verfassungsgeschichte. Heidelberg, 1838.
Mommsen, Th.—Römische Forschungen, Bd. I. Berlin, 1879.
Rubino, J.—Untersuchungen (Abschn. iv. "von den Volksversammlungen") Cassel, 1839.
Soltau, W.—Entstehung und Zusammensetzung der altrömischen Volksversammlungen. Berlin, 1880.
Soltau, W.—Die Gültigkeit der Plebiscite. Berlin, 1884.
6. THE STATE DIVISIONS
Beloch, J.—Der italische Bund unter Roms Hegemonie. Leipzig, 1880.
Huschke, P.—Die Verfassung des Königs Servius Tullius. Heidelberg, 1838.
Kubitschek, J.—De Romanarum tribuum origine et propagatione. Vienna, 1882.
Kubitschek, J.—Imperium Romanum tributim discriptum. Vienna, 1889.
Mommsen, Th.—Die römische Tribus in administrativer Beziehung.
Altona, 1844. Cuq, E.—"Le conseil des empereurs d'Auguste à Dioclétien" (Mémoires presentés à l'Académie des inscriptions). Paris, 1884.
Hirschfeld, O.—Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete der römischen Verwaltungsgeschichte. Berlin, 1877.
Liebenam, W.—Forschungen zur Verwaltungsgeschichte des römischen Kaiserreichs. Leipzig, 1888.
Liebenam, W.—Die Laufbahn der Procuratoren his auf die Zeit Diocletians. Jena, 1886.
8. THE CIVIL AND CRIMINAL COURTS
Bethmann-Hollweg, M. A. von.—"Der römische Civilprozess" (Der Civilprozess des gemeinen Rechts, Bde. I. II.). Bonn, 1864.
Geib, G.—Geschichte des römischen Criminalprocesses bis zum Tode Justinians. Leipzig, 1842.
Greenidge, A.—The legal procedure of Cicero's time. Oxford, 1901.
Keller, F. L. von.—Der römische Civilprozess und die Actionen. 5te Ausg. bearbeitet von Adolf Wach. Leipzig, 1876.
Mommsen, Th.—Römisches Strafrecht. Leipzig, 1899.
Puntschart, V.—Die Entwicklung des grundgesetzlichen Civilrechts der Römer. Erlangen, 1872.
Rudorff, A.—Römische Rechtsgeschichte, Bd. II. Leipzig, 1859.
Wlassak, M.—Römische Processgesetze. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Formularverfahrens. Leipzig, 1888-91.
Wlassak, M.—Edict und Klageform. Jena, 1882.
Zumpt, A.—Das Criminalrecht der römischen Republik. Berlin, 1865-69.
9. PRIVATE AND CRIMINAL LAW
Cuq, E.—Les institutions juridiques des Romains. Paris, 1891.
Czyhlarz, C. von.—Lehrbuch der Institutionen des römischen Rechts. Prague, Vienna, Leipzig. 1895.
Giraud, C.—Histoire du droit Romain ou introduction historique à l'étude de cette législation. Paris, 1847.
Goodwin, F.—The Twelve Tables. London, 1886.
Ihering, R. von.—Geist des römischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen Stufe seiner Entwicklung. Leipzig, 1877-83.
Karlowa, O.—Römische Rechtsgeschichte. Leipzig, 1885.
Laboulaye, E.—Essai sur les lois criminelles des Romains concernant la responsabilité des magistrats. Paris, Leipzig, 1845.
Mitteis, L.—Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in dem östlichen Provinzen des römischen Kaiserreichs. Leipzig, 1891.
Mommsen, Th.—Römisches Strafrecht. Leipzig, 1899.
Muirhead, J.—Historical introduction to the private law of Rome. Second edition revised and edited by H. Goudy. London, 1899.
Ortolan, E.—Histoire de la législation Romaine. 1884.
Ortolan, E.—Explication historique des instituts de l'empereur Justinien. Paris, 1851.
Rein, W.—Das Criminalrecht der Römer von Romulus bis auf Justinianus. Leipzig, 1844.
Roby, H.—An introduction to the study of Justinian's Digest, Cambridge, 1886.
Rudorff, A.—Römische Rechtsgeschichte, Leipzig, 1857-59.
Sohm, R.—The institutes of Roman law. Translated by J. C. Ledlie, with an introductory essay by E. Grueber. Oxford, 1892.
Voigt, M.—Die zwölf Tafeln. Geschichte und System des Civil- und Criminal-Rechtes, wie Processes der XII. Tafeln nebst deren Fragmenten. Leipzig, 1888.
Voigt, M.—Römische Rechtsgeschichte. Leipzig, 1892.
Zumpt, A.—Das Criminalrecht der römischen Republik. Berlin, 1865-69.
10. PUBLIC ECONOMY
Cunningham, W.—"An essay on Western civilisation in its economic
aspects" (Ancient Times, Book III). Cambridge, 1898.
Dureau de la Malle, A.—Economie politique des Romains. Paris, 1840.
Marquardt, J.—Römische Staatsverwaltung, Bd. II. 2te. Aufl., besorgt von H. Dessau und A. von Domaszewski. Leipzig, 1884.
11. SOCIAL CONDITIONS
Friedländer, L.—Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms in der Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine. Leipzig, 1862-71.
Ingram, J.—A history of slavery and serfdom (ch. iii.). London, 1895.
Marquardt, J.—Das Privatleben der Römer. 2te. Aufl., besorgt von A. Mau. Leipzig, 1886.
Voigt, M.—"Privataltertümer und Kulturgeschichte" (Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft, herausg. von Dr. Iwan von Müller, Bd. IV. Abt. ii.). München, 1893.
Wallon, H.—Histoire de l'esclavage dans l'antiquité. Paris, 1879.
12. THE GUILDS
Cohn, M.—Zum römischen Vereinsrecht. Berlin, 1873.
Liebenam, W.—Zur Geschichte und Organisation des römischen Vereinswesens, drei Untersuchungen. Leipzig, 1890.
Mommsen, Th.—De collegiis et sodaliciis Romanorum. Kiel, 1843.
Waltzing, J.—Etude historique sur les corporations professionelles chez les Romains depuis les origines jusqu'à la chute de l'Empire d'Occident.
Louvain, 1895-99. Beurlier, E.—Essai sur le culte rendu aux Empereurs Romains. Paris, 1890.
Boissier, G.—La religion Romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins. Paris, 1874.
Bouché-Leclercq, A.—Les pontifes de l'ancienne Rome. Paris, 1871.
Guiraud, P.—Les assemblées provinciales dans l'Empire Romain, Paris, 1887.
Marquardt, J.—"De provinciarum Romanarum conciliis et sacerdotibus" (Ephemeris Epigraphica, vol. i. pp. 200-14).
Mourlot, F.—Essai sur l'histoire de l'Augustalité dans l'empire Romain. Paris, 1895.
14. THE MUNICIPAL TOWNS
Kuhn, E.—Die städtische und bürgerliche Verfassung des römischen Reichs bis auf die Zeiten Justinians. Leipzig, 1864-65.
Liebenam, W.—Städteverwaltung im römischen Kaiserreiche. Leipzig, 1900.
Mommsen, Th.—"Die Stadtrechte der latinischen Gemeinden Salpensa und Malaca in der Provinz Baetica" (Abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen Classe der königlich sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Bd. II.). Leipzig, 1857.
15. THE PROVINCES
Arnold, W.—The Roman system of provincial administration to the accession of Constantine the Great. London, 1879.
Marquardt, J.—Römische Staatsverwaltung, Bd. I. Leipzig, 1881.
Mommsen, Th.—The provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian. Translated by William P. Dickson. London, 1886.
16. SOURCES AND DOCUMENTS
Bruns, C.—Fontes juris Romani antiqui. Freiburg, 1893.
Kipp, Th.—Quellenkunde des römischen Rechts. Leipzig, 1896.
17. INSCRIPTIONS
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Berlin.
Inscriptions Regni Neapolitani, ed. Mommsen. Leipzig, 1852.
Mommsen, Th.—Res gestae divi Augusti ex monumentis Ancyrano et Apolloniensi. Berlin, 1883.
Orelli-Henzen.—Inscriptionum Latinarum selectarum collectio. Zürich, 1828-56.
Peltier, C.—Res gestae divi Augusti. Paris, 1886.
Wilmanns, G.—Exempla inscriptionum Latinarum. Berlin, 1873. 18. DICTIONARIES OF ANTIQUITIES CONTAINING ARTICLES ON ROMAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
Daremberg-Saglio.—Dictionnaire des antiquités Grecques et Romaines
(A to Lib). 1875, etc.
Pauly.—Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Alterthumswissenschaft. 6 Bde. Stuttgart, 1839.
Pauly-Wissowa.—Real-Encyclopädie, etc. (a new edition of the above, A to Corn). 1893, etc.
Smith.—Dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities. Third edition, edited by W. Smith, W. Wayte, and G. E. Marindin. London, 1890.
19. HISTORIES OF ROME
Duruy, V.—History of Rome and of the Roman people, from its origin to the establishment of the Christian Empire. Translated by W. J. Clarke.
Edited by J. P. Mahaffy. London, 1883-86.
Gardthausen, V.—Augustus und seine Zeit. Leipzig, 1891-96.
Gibbon, E.—The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Edited by J. B. Bury. London, 1896-1900.
Hertzberg, G.—Geschichte des römischen Kaiserreichs (Oncken, W.—Allgemeine Geschichte, Hauptabth. 2, Thl. l). Berlin, 1880.
How (W.) and Leigh (H.).—A history of Rome to the death of Caesar. London, 1896.
Ihne, W.—Römische Geschichte. Leipzig, 1868-90.
Long, G.—The decline of the Roman Republic. London, 1864-74.
Merivale, C.—History of the Romans under the Empire. London, 1875-76.
Mommsen, Th.—The history of Rome. Translated by W. P. Dickson. London, 1894.
Niebuhr, B.—Römische Geschichte. Neue Ausgabe von M. Isler. Berlin, 1873-74.
Niebuhr, B.—History of Rome. Translated by Walter (F.), Smith (W.), and Schmitz (L.). London, 1827-44.
Pelham, H.—Outlines of Roman History. London, 1893.
Peter, C.—Geschichte Roms. Halle, 1881.
Ranke, L. von.—Weltgeschichte. Thl. II. ("die römische Republik und ihre Weltherrschaft"). Thl. III. ("das altrömische Kaiserthum"). Leipzig, 1883.
Schiller, H.—Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit. Gotha, 1883-87.
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