Science of Dress/Chapter IX
CHAPTER IX.
GIRLS' CLOTHES.
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THE ideal of beauty in dress which I set forth in the opening chapter is, I fear, far from being common at the present time, and we find much weakness, suffering, and ill-health consequent on the neglect of its precepts. Women, and more especially growing girls, suffer much—first, from insufficient warmth of clothing; secondly, from the weight of clothes hanging mainly from the waist; and, thirdly, from the pressure on the lungs, heart, and other internal organs, caused by bands and garments too tightly made.
It may be thought strange that in such a book as the present, which will, I suppose, be read chiefly by the wealthier portion of the community, I should refer to insufficient clothing as a source of suffering, yet it is true.
Most girls wear short skirts up till the age of about fifteen, and in quite cold weather, as a rule, their legs and feet are only covered by thread, silk, or crape stockings, and calico drawers under loose skirts. The middle part of the body is, however, overheated, for it is covered by the tops of the petticoats and drawers fastening close round with bands, by the stays, chemise, and sometimes vest. The neck and arms are, as a rule, quite as badly protected as the legs, for they have only the thickness of the dress over them, as the vest and chemise are cut low in the neck and short in the sleeves, and high petticoat bodices are not always worn.
If we compare this dress with that of a young man we find that the male has greatly the advantage in matter of comfort. He generally wears woollen socks, drawers, and vest with long sleeves and high neck, and his outer garments clothe him completely and with an even warmth all over. I do not say that men's dress is perfect in comfort, but the balance is decidedly in favour of the male attire.
As to the weight of girls' clothes, it is quite common to see a young girl, who, as it is sometimes said, is outgrowing her strength, and whose spine can scarcely support her head and shoulders erect, dragging herself wearily about in a dress, the skirt of which alone weighs some pounds, This has possibly been bought for her with the mistaken idea that the heavier a material is the warmer it must be. The mistake, however, is a serious one, as heavy materials generally owe their weight and substantial appearance to admixture with cotton and fibrous rubbish, some stuffs being, as it is called, "loaded," in order to deceive the public as to their value. All-wool materials, if genuine, are light in proportion to their warmth.
The chief evil, however, of ordinary dress, results from the way in which it is supported, pressing upon the waist (see Plate 5, line A, B), hindering the development of the internal organs and cramping them, thus tending to produce injuries which may affect the happiness of the girl's future.
I believe that a large number of the cases of curvature of the spine met with in surgical practice, generally in girls between the ages of twelve and sixteen, result directly or indirectly from the weight and improper pressure of clothes, a potent agent in causing the deformity being the wearing of high-heeled boots, which throw the body forward in walking. Tight, stiff stays are responsible for a great deal of harm, and I am afraid that horrible process called tight-lacing begins but too frequently earlier than is generally suspected.
I propose to deal with these evils seriatim, and show how best they may be avoided.
I have already given what seem to me sufficient reasons for maintaining that wool is the natural and most healthy substance out of which to manufacture clothes. Clothes in their action should be merely supplementary to the skin, and care is required to enable them to properly perform the functions demanded of them. They should be light, warm, permit free transpiration, or, in other words, ventilate well; they should exert no pressure on any part, and they should be free from all poisonous particles, whether of dirt or of dye.
Our bodies lose heat by evaporation, and also by conduction, convection, and radiation. We, therefore, require our clothes to be absorbent, so that the evaporation shall not take place on the skin, but from the surface of the clothes, which prevents chill. The mere fact of covering impedes loss of heat by convection, and radiation, and provided our garments are made of non-conducting materials they necessarily minimize that loss of heat by conduction which is always going on between two bodies of different temperatures, such as the human body and the air, just on the same principle that a tea-cosy retains heat in the teapot. We stuff our tea-cosies with wool in perhaps unconscious obedience to the principles I have explained, and we should clothe our bodies in the same way.
Stationary air, as has been observed,1[1] is a bad conductor of heat; but particles of air rise, when heated, and give place to colder ones. Hence it is desirable that the covering of the body should have a rough surface, so as to entangle in it particles of air, which becoming heated, and being unable to rise, form a sort of warm atmosphere round the body. It is an advantage, moreover, for garments to be loosely woven, so that a certain quantity of air may be entangled in the meshes of the material, and for the same reason, instead of the clothes consisting of one very thick garment, successive layers of clothing are and should be worn, as a considerable amount of air is then imprisoned between them.
The human body has a tiny atmosphere clinging to its hairs, in proportion to their size, as may be seen by plunging the hand quickly into water, and then holding it still, when little silvery bubbles will be seen on the skin. But in other animals better covered than man, air adheres in considerable quantities to the thick hair, fur, wool, and feathers, adding to their warmth-saving capabilities, and here again wool is indicated as a most suitable-clothing material: for cotton, linen, and silk, having smoother surfaces, do not provide so protective an atmosphere.
Nature points to wool as the proper clothing of man, as of the lower animals, and, as is only to be expected under the circumstances, it fulfils all the conditions necessary for the preservation of health, as far as dress is concerned; it retains more warmth, while weighing less than any other material, and it allows the skin to perform those functions of transpiration, interference with which is the precursor of disease, while stoppage of them causes death, as surely as the cessation of breathing through the lungs, consequent on suffocation.
To speak now of the ventilating power of various materials. It might appear at first sight, and is, indeed, often maintained by the thoughtless, that the more impervious to air a material is the warmer it must be; but experience teaches us that this is not so. For instance, a kid glove, which can hardly be said to allow any air to pass through it, feels by no means so warm on the hand as one knitted out of wool, through which a great amount of air can pass, as may easily be seen by blowing through it. If we call the ventilating power of flannel 100, that of linen is 50, of silk 40, and of buckskin 1; but a practical comparison of the heat values of these materials shows that flannel feels decidedly the warmest when worn. Of course it may be said that it feels warmer because it is a better non-conductor, but I believe another cause for this effect may be found in its higher ventilating power. I said in a previous chapter that the skin breathes as well as the lungs, though in a less degree, and if the air is permitted to reach the skin it not only removes waste and injurious substances from the body, but it also gives oxygen to the body. This oxygen combines with the carbon in the small blood-vessels, which in countless multitudes underlie the skin, and heat is given off.
Speaking of these little blood-vessels leads me to mention another point about clothing, namely, that if clothes fit too tightly they are not so warm as those of looser make, and the reason of this is twofold. First, tight clothes press upon the little blood-vessels in the skin, and thus mechanically interfere with the circulation of the blood in them, and that hot fluid, the blood, not being permitted to flow to the skin, that organ feels the loss of its heat supply. Secondly, tight garments, permitting but little air to lie between them and the skin, do not so freely permit the interchange of those good offices of which I have spoken, between it and the air, as would looser garments.
The value of woollen clothing for occupations or sports which bring about copious perspiration is generally acknowledged, and the reason of this is that it permits the skin to dry rapidly by absorbing moisture, and does not cling to the skin wet and clammy like cotton or linen. Wet clothes conduct heat away from the body more rapidly than dry ones do, and if two men, one wearing a flannel and one a linen shirt, after a vigorous game of lawn-tennis sat down to cool, the one wearing flannel would probably suffer no ill results, while the linen-clad hero would soon feel a sudden chill, and would speedily develop all the too familiar symptoms of cold in the head, or on, the chest, or of sore throat. By absorbing much of the perspiration woollen clothes prevent the chilling of the body which takes place when evaporation is too rapid.
But, besides wearing woollen during athletic sports, most men wear woollen vests, drawers, and socks—at any rate during the winter; yet our young girls, who are infinitely more in need of every advantage that clothes can offer, for the most part are allowed, even in the coldest weather, to wear cambric or cotton underclothing, in spite of the fact that most medical men are agreed that woollen underclothing is necessary in this climate.
My own opinion is that woollen should be worn not only in winter but in summer also, the only difference being in the thickness of the make and number of the garments, and I am led to believe this by the physiological facts which I have stated.
Woollen garments, if themselves kept clean, preserve the skin in a clean and healthy condition, keeping it warm in winter, and preventing chill in summer. That irritation which sometimes follows the unaccustomed wearing of woollen next the skin is generally caused by the material being of recent manufacture or coarse quality, and in all but the rarest cases it passes off within a few days, if the practice is persevered in.
In those rare cases where irritation continues if all-wool garments are worn next the skin, a mixture of cotton and wool, as in the ordinary "shop" merinos, or of silk and wool, as in the Anglo-Indian gauze, which is perfectly smooth, may be worn.
In summer weather I believe that many cases of so-called nettle-rash, and that most painful skin disease, prickly heat, the name of which admirably describes the sensations it produces, are caused by the sudden checking of the functions of the skin, owing to the thinness of the vests worn. These cases are not often met with in medical practice, as, although extremely painful, the affections are known not to be dangerous; but I believe they are much more common than is generally thought, and privately I have met with several in the persons of young ladies who in summer wear calico next the skin.
A typical case has been recorded2[2] by Mr. Wharton, whose patient, himself a medical man, suffered tortures every year, from May till November, from prickly heat (lichen tropicus). His sufferings were aggravated by increase in the action of the skin, and all treatment availed nothing. "At last," said Mr. Wharton, "it occurred to me that perhaps the light, short-sleeved India-gauze vests that he wore in summer had some share in the causation of his agony; they were too thin either to absorb the perspiration, or to protect the skin from sudden chills.... I accordingly advised him to wear throughout the summer the thickest long-sleeved vests, made entirely of wool, such as he wore in the depth of the winter. The result was the absolute cessation of his experience of 'prickly heat.' "
There is a very prevalent idea that woollen clothing is weakening, but this is only a misapprehension of the fact that it is weakening to allow the body to be constantly overheated. Although woollen is worn, the body need not be overheated, even in summer, care being taken that the quality and quantity of the clothes is suitable to the external temperature.
To come now to the practical application of all the principles which I have endeavoured to explain in this and the preceding chapters, I recommend that the body, especially of growing girls, should be clad entirely in wool, and for this purpose I advocate the use of woollen combinations, with high necks and long sleeves. The combination garment, with the addition of woollen stockings, forms a complete and most sanitary costume, and, were it not for the sake of appearances, is all that is needed for summer wear; but other clothing is required in winter for warmth, and in summer for the sake of that tyrant appearance. If any objection is raised against combinations, on the score that it is dangerous to change them at night, and unpleasant to sleep in drawers, woollen vests may be worn, and drawers of the same material fastened to the stays or the bodice hereafter to be described. The vests can then be retained for night wear, and the drawers taken off with the other clothes. Many people, however, think it advisable to change the underclothing at night, and I have heard this especially recommended for consumptives, on the grounds that, after having been worn all day, the underclothing is, as it were, poisoned by the excretions of the wearer. If this is done, great care is needed in order to prevent chill. It must be borne in mind that on retiring to rest, and throughout the night, the human body is at its minimum of power. Worn out with the day's exertions, the nervous system is exhausted, and more liable to be injuriously affected than at any other time, and we must not forget that cold acts through the nervous system. During sleep, moreover, when the vital forces are being renewed, the functions of the body go on more slowly than while we are awake, the heart beats less quickly, and less heat is evolved, as may easily be seen by taking the temperature of a sleeper with a clinical thermometer. The temperature of the atmosphere also falls at night, and sometimes very suddenly and considerably, so that even greater care is required as to night clothing than as to that worn during the day. I would lay down as a hard-and-fast rule that, unless the temperature of the bedroom reaches or exceeds 60° Fahr., the garment worn next the skin should not be changed at night, except, of course, in the case of those very strong people whom nothing seems to hurt.
If the woollen vest is changed, its place must be supplied by one of equal thickness and warmth. It is also desirable that nightdresses should be made of wool instead of the orthodox cotton or linen; they can be made extremely pretty by the aid of embroidery in silk. For cases of disease such as rheumatism or ague it has long been recommended for the patient to discard the use of cotton or linen sheets, and sleep between the blankets, a tacit acknowledgment of the principles regarding the relative values of animal and vegetable fibres, which I have explained in former chapters.
Just as it is desirable, in the interests of health, that wool should be used exclusively for clothing during the day, so it is that the surroundings of the body during the night should be of wool, and the bed or mattrass, being, as it is generally supposed to be, stuffed with hair, wool, or feathers, should be cased in woollen material. Many people, when, travelling, they are obliged to sleep in strange beds, are actuated by the fear of damp sheets, and wisely elect to sleep between the blankets; and although this would not be considered comfortable by the fastidious, such beautifully soft and smooth materials are now made of wool, that there is no reason why woollen sheets should not be substituted for linen or cotton ones. Expense may, perhaps, be an obstacle, for neither pure woollen materials nor unadulterated bedding can be sold for a low price; but after all it is only the initial expense that has to be considered, and that is outweighed by the personal advantage to be obtained, for
Health is the first wealth.
Soon after the publication in the Queen of my articles on "Healthy Dress for the Little Ones," which form a part of Chapter VII. in this volume, a correspondent, signing herself "Northerner," wrote to the paper as follows :—
"I cannot agree with Miss Ballin, when advocating high-necked and long-sleeved woollen combinations for little girls. Once begun, they could never be left off. Fancy a girl accustomed to them up to her, say seventeenth year, and then, on her 'coming out,' obliged to wear a square or low gown. Surely she would run more than double the risk of catching cold than a girl accustomed all her life to a low-necked vest. Of course, woollen combinations may be healthier; but, as long as fashion continues as it is, girls should (if they feel the cold) wear high flannel bodices, for the risk in leaving off a garment of that description of an evening would be less than that of leaving off one worn next the skin."
Although this letter was in opposition to the opinions I had expressed, I was pleased to see it, for it raised a question of great importance, as far as the health of girls is concerned.
As long as fashion demands that Court and evening dresses should be made low in the neck, and with little or nothing in the way of sleeves, of course there will be many whose position in life is such that they are obliged to conform to this custom, however injurious it may be; and there are many others who will conform to the custom, not because they are obliged to do so, but because they like to copy their superiors in social rank.
The wearing of low-necked dresses is not a modern custom, nor is its condemnation of modern development. A French, writer in the middle of the fifteenth century makes the following remark: "By detestable vanity, ladies of rank now cause their robes to be made so low in the breast, and so open on the shoulders, that we may see nearly the whole bosom, and much of their shoulders and necks, and much below, down their backs." But the ladies of rank were then, and are now, greatly in the minority, compared to, the mass of women who are in sufficiently easy circumstances to be able to pay attention to their dress; and to all those who do not feel themselves bound by their social position to wear low dresses in the evening, I would say, wear your dresses as elegant and as ornamental as you can afford to, have them trimmed in the neck, if you like, to look as if they were cut low, but do not have your neck and arms bare—for this is the cause not only of colds and consequent debility, but when there is the slightest taint of consumption it gives an opportunity for that terrible disease to develop itself. Many young girls at their first balls sow the seeds of disease which in a few short years will lay them in their graves.
In the case of girls who will be obliged when they "come out" to wear low-necked dresses, I should advise that while children they should have all the advantages of warm clothing such as I have described; but that in the summer preceding the season during which they are to make their débût the long-sleeved and high-necked vest should be exchanged for one low in the neck, and with short sleeves. If this change is made in warm weather, it will not be felt; or if there is any feeling of chilliness, an extra outer garment can be put on at discretion.
It is well not to make the change suddenly, but gradually, by suitable arrangement in the warmth of outer garments. In the winter following, and afterwards, high flannel bodices may be worn as "Northerner" suggests. A healthy mode of dress during the childhood of these girls will have strengthened their constitutions, and I think they will not, as my correspondent fears, be more liable to take cold when they wear evening dress. The plan here indicated has answered admirably in the cases of some friends of mine, who have always been dressed on sanitary principles, but who, on State occasions, have to resign the high-necked and long-sleeved dresses and vests which they ordinarily wear, even for dinner and small evening parties. These young ladies have not yet suffered from their enforced obedience to fashion.
To débutantes I would point out that the time of greatest danger for them is when, after having become heated with dancing, they pass into a conservatory or refreshment-room, or on to the staircase, which is cold and draughty. The cold air then comes directly in contact with their bare skin, and a chill which will lead to more or less serious results is the probable consequence. Seats beneath open windows should be avoided, and after dancing, a few minutes should be allowed, so that undue heat may have subsided, before passing into a cooler atmosphere.
A very good plan, but one which is not always practicable, is to have a small shawl or wrap to throw round the shoulders after dancing. Dancing is so delightful and healthy an amusement, that it is unjust for people to blame it as the cause of evils for which improper dress or imprudence in regard to draughts are really accountable. A motive which for some girls would be much more powerful than any consideration in regard to health is that, if they catch cold at one ball, the probability is they will not be able to go to the next, or that if they do go to it, they will labour under the disadvantages of a red nose, watery eyes, and the liability to interrupt the sweet nothings whispered by their partners with a violent sneeze.
But to return to my muttons, or rather my wool. While recommending it as the natural and most healthy substance out of which to make clothes, I must warn my readers that most of the woollen materials now in the market are largely adulterated with cotton. This increases their weight, and perhaps improves their appearance, but it decreases the value of the stuff, not only because it is a cheaper material, but because it presents to the wearer the double disadvantage of increased weight and diminished warmth, as well as decreased facilities for transpiration. There are, however, tests by which it is easy to discover whether there is any admixture in the stuff, and two of these are so simple that they can be practised by any one, and should not be neglected when a purchase is to be made. Examination of the material with a microscope is the surest mode of detection, and a thirty-fold magnifier is sufficient for this purpose. The woollen fibre is seen beneath it as a cylindrical, nearly circular body, with a wavy outline; the cotton thread is flat and tape-like with angular folds, as if crumpled.
The second test is to separate the warp and woof, and hold them to a flame; the pure wool becomes a shapeless mass before it is consumed, leaves a shapeless ash, and becomes extinguished directly it is removed from the flame. Cotton or linen thread, however, burns after removal from the flame, and its form is plainly distinguishable in the ash, Threads made of a mixture of wool and cotton burn irregularly. Before purchasing so-called woollen materials, it is well to obtain patterns on which to experiment as here indicated.
The greatest disadvantage of woollen materials is that some of them shrink considerably when washed. Woollen materials should be shrunk by soaking in hot water before use. Combinations and garments intended to fit close to the figure should be bought a size larger than is actually required, and when washed, the following plan should be adopted. The clothes should be soaked for half an hour in warm, but not hot, soap and water, about 108° Fahr. (30° Reaumur) is a sufficient heat. This will dissolve the fatty matter they have absorbed from the skin, and they should then be washed by passing through the hands, but not rubbed, which will spoil the texture of the wool. Any very dirty places should be specially soaped and brushed with a soft brush. If after this treatment the garments are not quite clean, soak them again in water with less soap than before, and pass them again through the hands; finally, rinse them quickly through clean cold water. After this washing they should be stretched with the hands, and hung up at full length to dry. When nearly dry they should be ironed, and before this they must not be placed near the fire. Woollen materials should not be mangled, as mangling spoils their texture. When precautions such as these are taken the size and shape of garments can hardly be injured by washing; but as laundresses are generally very careless in these matters, woollen clothes should be washed at home, and they should be washed frequently.
Mr. Bernard Roth, F.R.C.S., has remarked on this point:— "No doubt many of the objections which medical authorities have raised to flannel being worn next to the skin have arisen from observations on the poor, who often will put on a flannel shirt or vest and keep it on till it almost falls to pieces. When I was house-surgeon to a London hospital I have more than once noticed an expression of surprise when a patient suffering from a skin affection was asked when his flannel shirt was last washed, the idea that a flannel shirt required washing never apparently having occurred to him. Such habits, combined with a total absence of any general ablution of the body, will, no doubt engender that tendency to chill and to taking cold which is so unjustly put down to the wearing of flannel by some writers. Where a flannel is washed at reasonable intervals, say at least once a week, and if the whole body is bathed daily, only good can come from wearing it next the skin. I have never known any harm to result, but only good, after ordering such underclothing for patients, which I am constantly doing,"