The Development of Navies During the Last Half-Century/Chapter 13
CHAPTER XIII
FOREIGN NAVIES— UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA
Condition of United States Navy before and after Civil War—Apathy in Naval Matters—Change of Feeling in 1880—New Cruisers constructed—Battle Ships decided on and commenced—Special Fast Cruiser—Torpedoes—The Howell Torpedo—Dynamite Gun—Development of Navies of South American States—Chili—Capture of 'Huascar' by 'Blanco Encalada' and 'Almirante Cochrane'—Peru—The Argentine Republic—Brazil.
If several of the navies of European states exhibit great progress during the last half century, in the west we observe a fleet practically created in little more than a decade. After a strange apathy of many years, the United States is now fully alive to the necessity of having a fleet commensurate with her position. A few years ago her navy consisted of a number of obsolete monitors and wooden cruisers equally ancient. Such a condition was humiliating, and might be dangerous, seeing that insignificant neighbouring states were in the possession of modern ironclads and swift powerful cruisers. No nation with a long sea frontier and important interests abroad should be without the means of protecting both, and for this an adequate naval force is essential. For the United States this dangerous condition no longer exists. Stirring appeals by successive Secretaries of the Navy have at last roused the nation to action. With a marvellous energy, of which an example was afforded in the last Civil War, America has developed during the last few years everything necessary for the construction and equipment of a modern fleet.
There was no seeking abroad for those appliances which their own country had not hitherto, from want of a demand, produced. The latest ordnance, the best steel armour plates, and marine engines of the most recent design, each requiring special plant for its manufacture were produced on the spot, and warships built which will bear comparison with those of any European state. When we recall the period that has elapsed since we passed from wood to iron in naval construction, and from smooth bore to rifled guns, with the successive phases of improvement in each, none can withhold a tribute of admiration at the manner in which all difficulties in the United States have been surmounted. Defects here and there must occur, but the nation has just cause for pride in the vessels which the Government and private shipbuilding yards have turned out without any abnormal delay in completion.
But brief space need be accorded to a description of the navy previous to and during the Civil War. At the commencement of that struggle America possessed several fine wooden steam frigates of about 3000 tons, and a number of smaller vessels, but the sinking of the Cumberland' by the 'Merrimac' showed that such craft had no chance when opposed to the smallest ironclad. This conclusion was strengthened by the success of the 'Monitor,' and led to a number of similar vessels being constructed with great rapidity. For service in the numerous rivers and inlets of the coast, they had to draw little water. The late Mr Eads designed and constructed several for the Government which only drew 6 ft. Some were propelled by paddle-wheels, and were more like locomotive rafts on which guns were mounted and housed in with iron plates – Captain Cowper Coles’s original idea, in fact, carried into practical execution. Then a larger type of monitor was designed by Ericsson as a seagoing ship, and one called the 'Dictator' was completed. Work on another, the 'Puritan,' was suspended in consequence of some error having been made in the calculation of her weights. After a lapse of many years, she is to be now completed with a modern equipment.
At the end of the war it was decided to construct four seagoing turret ships, the 'Miantonomoh,' 'Monadnock,' 'Terror,' and 'Amphitrite.' Only the first named was completed and crossed the Atlantic. She was about 4000 tons and had two turrets. She was of low freeboard, and in a moderate sea her upper deck was swept by the waves.
When the war ceased, retrenchment was the order of the day; the monitors were laid up, where they gradually fell into decay, and only a few wooden ships were annually kept in commission to carry the flag on foreign stations. Though obsolete they were not replaced as long as they were able to perform the ordinary duties of a war vessel in peace time. An effort was made in 1863 to build fast cruisers, and some of 4000 tons and 340 ft. long were designed. But, as we found with the 'Mersey' and 'Orlando,' such dimensions and powerful machinery were incompatible with a wooden hull. The American vessels similarly failed to fulfil expectations, and their existence was a short one. In 1870 Congress decided that the fleet should consist of ten ships, rated first class, of 3500 tons, and twenty of the second class, of 2000 tons. But this abstract resolution was not made concrete by voting the necessary money to carry it into effect, and little was done beyond selling some old vessels. Money received from this source, and a small amount granted by Congress, enabled the naval depart- ment to build a few vessels during the next few years which kept the navy going; but in 1876 a fine vessel called the 'Trenton' was launched. Though just under 4000 tons, she had the moderate length of 260 ft., with 45 ft. beam. There was no attempt at high speed, but at full power she could steam 14 knots, and had besides considerable sail area. The armament was composed of eleven 8-in. rifled guns. She was a fine vessel, well suited for cruising in distant seas, but unfortunately was wrecked at Samoa in the hurricane from which the 'Calliope' alone escaped without injury.
In the meantime no new ironclads had been built, and when in 1880 the country was ripe for a considerable augmentation of the fleet, the first want was seen to be that of efficient cruisers. As it was determined not to go abroad for ships and guns, considerable delay was inevitable, so it was not till 1883 that four modern cruisers were commenced, the 'Chicago,' 'Boston,' 'Atlanta,' and 'Dolphin.' The first named is the largest, 4500 tons, with a speed of 15 knots and a mixed armament of four 8-in., eight 6-in., and two 5-in., besides smaller guns. The 8-in. guns are mounted two on a side in sponsons. I think a lighter and more homogenous armament would have been better, but the 'Chicago' is undeniably a very powerful vessel. The 'Atlanta' and 'Boston' are similar in design, but smaller, while the 'Dolphin' is a despatch vessel of 1500 tons. All have been completed, and proved successful, a matter highly creditable to all concerned.
The country was now willing, and even eager, to show what could be done in the New World with ship construction. Five more cruisers, the 'Newark,' 'San Francisco,' 'Charlestown,' 'Baltimore,' and 'Philadelphia,' were commenced in 1887, of approximately the same size as the ' Chicago,' but with a considerably higher speed. All have a protective deck, with sloping sides, on which the armour is 4 in. thick, while on the horizontal portion it is 2 in. The armament of three of these ships consists of twelve 6-in. guns, but two, the 'Charlestown' and 'Philadelphia,' have a pair of 8-in. and only six 6-in. guns. Their full speed varies from 18 to 20 knots. The 'Baltimore' steamed from Copenhagen to Lisbon in just over five days, averaging 17 knots, an excellent performance.
A fleet of cruisers only cannot, however, safeguard 
A somewhat larger vessel, also under construction, the 'Maine,' has likewise two turrets, one on the bow and the other on the quarter, each containing a pair of lO-in. guns. She has an auxiliary armament of six 6-in. guns, and also carries a partial belt of armour 11 in. thick. The 'Maine' is termed an armoured cruiser, and the design included sail power, but it is doubtful whether this will be eventually provided.
Towards the close of 1889 it was decided to construct three larger vessels, termed coast line battle ships. Presumably the name was given to calm any suspicion that the country was about to embark on an active foreign policy, but it is quite obvious that a vessel which can only operate in sight of land has but a limited use. These vessels, the 'Indiana,' 'Massachusetts,' and 'Oregon' will, however, be quite capable of proceeding to any part of the world should the honour of the country demand this service. They are to have a displacement of 10,300 tons, and will be 350 ft. long and 69 ft. broad. Of this length 190 ft. of the water line will be protected by an armour belt having a maximum thickness of 18 in. There will be a turret at each end containing a pair of 13-in. guns, four smaller turrets in addition will each carry two 8-in. guns, and there will also be four 6-in. guns, besides machine guns. It is difficult to state any great advantage attached to such an armament. On the other hand, the complication of having so many different kinds of ammunition may prove most inconvenient, besides demanding great space for its stowage. Simplicity in ordnance as regards the number of sizes for naval purposes is urgently needed in these days. It may be essential to supplement the few heavy guns which a modern battle ship can carry with a number of lighter pieces, but there is no necessity for an intermediate grade. I even venture to suggest that about four different calibres would answer all requirements, and naval officers would welcome such a limitation. But to return to the American ships. In all other respects the design seems excellent, and in keeping within 10,500 tons the temptation to build monster vessels has been avoided. The view of the naval department at Washington is that 'the lack of important naval battles in recent years stands in marked contrast to the desperate efforts of European powers to equip extraordinary vessels designed to combine the invulnerable and the irresistible. A war of moderate duration between first-class naval powers would prove that a balance of advantages, unsuspected by many, rests with that vessel which has comparative simplicity, even though it be concomitant with a greater exposure of life, a lower speed, and reduced powers of offence.' This seems to me admirably put, but I think the argument for simplicity applies also to the armament.
Two of these battle ships are to be built by Messrs Cramp, of Philadelphia, and the third at the Union Iron Works, San Francisco. At both yards cruisers have been completed in which the workmanship has proved to be excellent.
In addition to the cruisers already mentioned, some others have been, or shortly will be, commenced. The most powerful is the 'New York,' a vessel of about 8000 tons, combining external and internal armour. The former consists of a 5-in. belt opposite the machinery, while the interior of the ship has a protective deck running the whole length, with sloping sides, which portion will be 6 in. thick, while the remainder will be 3 in. There will be a barbette forward and aft, also on each broadside. Two 8-in. guns will be mounted in the bow and stern barbettes, and a single gun of the same calibre in the broadside barbettes. There will also be an auxiliary armament of twelve 4-in. quick-firing guns. Her sea speed is to be 20 knots, and she will carry sufficient coal to steam 13,000 miles at 10 knots. Though terming this vessel an armoured cruiser, she may be equally considered a second-class battle ship capable of engaging with many ironclads of foreign powers or vessels of similar design, such as the 'Warspite' in our own and the 'Admiral Nachimoff' in the Russian navy.
Perhaps it is the fact that in America there are few large merchant steamers of great speed—such as we possess in the 'Teutonic' and others capable of being converted into commerce protectors—which has led that country to design a warship, at present known as 'No. 12,' of equal speed and greater offensive power than any merchant vessel, to specially act against the commerce of a hostile state. Her principal characteristics are to be: great length, 410 ft, which is 35 ft. more than the 'Blake' and 'Blenheim;' a speed of 22 knots; great coal capacity, 1500 tons; and a protective deck with 4 in. armour on slopes and 2½ in. on the horizontal portion. Her armament will be composed of one 8-in., two 6-in., and twelve 4-in. guns, in addition to a number of small rapid fire guns. The design appears to me well conceived for the object in view, especially as regards the armament, and restricting the heaviest gun to a calibre of 8 in. Her success or failure will depend on whether the expectations as to speed are realised. A special point in connection with the machinery is that she is to have three screws. It is considered that with such a displacement, 7500 tons, the extra propeller will give additional power, though in a small vessel this is not found to be the case. For the slower speeds, the centre screw alone working should prove sufficient, while those on each side would be disconnected and freely revolve with the progress of the vessel. Time can alone show whether this assumption is correct.
As regards torpedo boats, up to a very recent date none existed in America; but one has now been completed, 138 ft, long, which attained a speed of 23 knots, and others no doubt will follow.[1]
It is curious that up to the present no American war vessel has carried a locomotive torpedo. The Whitehead was not adopted when taken up by other nations, and efforts have for some time been directed to obtain a torpedo of native origin. Several have been put forward, but the most promising is one invented by Captain Howell of the American navy. It is similar in shape to the Whitehead, but instead of being driven by compressed air the Howell torpedo is propelled by two screws actuated by the rapid rotation of a heavy steel flywheel. This is fixed inside the torpedo, and spun to a great velocity, before the torpedo is launched, by an independent motor on board the ship, worked by steam or electricity. The axes of the wheel are connected to the screw shafts, by which power is transmitted to the propellers. This flywheel also acts as a gyroscope, in keeping the torpedo on a straight course, so that any deviation and consequent inclination of the torpedo is at once corrected by the gyroscopic pull in the opposite direction. Hence the torpedo travels in the line of projection, and is not deflected by the passing water when launched from the deck of a vessel proceeding at any rate of speed. This is the most valuable quality of the torpedo, as it obviates the necessity of calculating deflection due to different speeds of ship, which with the Whitehead torpedo have to be carefully verified and collated. On the other hand, the latter has a considerably higher speed, which, moreover, is uniform throughout the run, the engines being governed to work at a set pressure from first to last. But in the Howell the flywheel, having when spun up the enormous velocity of 9000 revolutions a minute, has throughout the run a continually decreasing velocity, diminishing the speed of the torpedo until it stops altogether. It is easy to understand that a subaqueous missile which reaches a vessel with sluggish movement has no chance of penetrating a net, and is more liable to be diverted from the object. If this defect can be remedied, and the speed increased, there is a simplicity about the Howell torpedo which to me is very attractive. The absence of an air chamber much reduces the length, which is important on board ship, and in proportion to the amount of explosive the total weight of the torpedo is considerably less than the Whitehead. The present efficiency of the latter has been the work of some years, and I understand it is at last to be adopted in America; but should the Howell exhibit decided improvement it may eventually take the other's place.
Compressed air is a convenient force, and for propelling a projectile has the great advantage of not varying in its action. Two charges of gunpowder of equal weight may, from variation in manufacture, or a slight difference in moisture, or climatic influence, throw two projectiles in succession from the same gun to widely distant spots. The atmosphere when compressed is not subject to such influences or variations, and has a less violent action than gunpowder. These characteristics have led to its employment to propel large charges of high explosive from a long tube, more commonly known as the dynamite gun. This originated in America, where a successful application of the principle has led to the construction of a small vessel called the ’Vesuvius' with three of these guns, from which 500 lbs. of dynamite or gun cotton can be thrown to the distance of a mile with great accuracy. The velocity being low, considerable elevation has to be given, as in mortar fire, and hence against a moving object a successful shot is most uncertain. But against an object whose position does not alter, when the range is ascertained, great destruction could be accomplished with such projectiles.
In the armament of their new fleet the United States has been able to commence at a period when the experience of other nations in breech-loading rifled guns can be utilised. But plant and machinery for construction had to be provided as well as the heavy steel forgings from which the modern gun is made. Under the energetic initiative of a most able Bureau of Ordnance all this has sprung up, and guns are now constructed equal in power to any produced in Europe. For seagoing purposes it is not intended to exceed 50 tons in weight. They have already a 10-inch gun, under 30 tons weight, which throws a 500-lb. projectile with a velocity of 2000 feet per second. Taking all things into consideration, I do not think that a more cumbrous weapon, in fewer numbers, is any advantage afloat.
It is evident that before the century closes the United States will probably possess a fleet recalling the old days when her wooden walls were to be seen in every sea, easy of recognition by their lofty spars, and noted for the smartness of their exercises.
A review of foreign navies would be incomplete without a word on those which have sprung up in South America. Chili, Peru, and the Argentine Republic, as well as Brazil, have each come to European shipyards for this portion of their armed strength. In the 'Esmeralda' Chili purchased one of the swiftest and most powerful cruisers of moderate dimensions. She was designed by Mr White and built at Elswick. The war with Peru added the 'Huascar' to her fleet. A brief account of this incident will be interesting as the only conflict between ironclads since Lissa.
The 'Huascar,' already described in the account of her action with the 'Shah,' had been doing considerable damage on the Chilian coast, so that it was determined to put a stop to her depredations. Chili therefore despatched the 'Almirante Cochrane' and 'Blanco Encalada' in pursuit These were small ironclads, of 3500 tons, then armed with muzzle-loading rifled guns, in a central battery protected by 8 in. of iron, while the armour belt was 9 in. thick. As the 'Huascar' had only 5-in. armour, and was 1400 tons smaller, she would have been overmatched by either of her opponents. Early one day in October 1879 the two Chilian vessels sighted the 'Huascar,' and giving chase, the 'Cochrane,' about 9.30 A.M. arrived within 3000 yards of the enemy, her consort being some 3 or 4 miles astern. The 'Huascar' was the first to open fire, but without result. The ships continued to close, as the 'Cochrane' was slightly the faster of the two, and at 1500 yards poured in a hot fire upon the 'Huascar.' Several shell penetrated the thin armour of the Peruvian vessel. One burst inside the conning tower and killed the captain. Another exploded inside the turret and did considerable execution, while others disabled the steering gear and apparatus for working the turret. The 'Huascar’s' return fire had little effect. One of her shots struck the 'Cochrane’s' armour and glanced off, another entered the ship, but did little damage.
In less than three-quarters of an hour it was evident the 'Huascar' could not avoid capture. She had fought pluckily, but escape was impossible, because she had not the speed, and the 'Encalada' had now come up. The latter at once joined the fray, tried to ram the 'Huascar,' but failed, and nearly collided with her consort A shell which about this time passed through the 'Cochrane's' battery, killing two men, is believed to have been fired from the 'Encalada.' Soon after the 'Huascar's' turret was again penetrated, and nearly all those inside were killed. Her flag was hauled down after a fight of an hour and a half, in which she had about seventy men killed and wounded out of 220.
Her own fire had been very inaccurate. Out of about forty shots fired from her guns only two or three struck the enemy. This shows the danger of limiting the armament to so few guns, especially when gunners are unskilful. In the attack of one ship by a pair the rapid motion which steam gives renders it difficult to keep clear of each other's ram and projectiles when at close quarters.
It is noteworthy that the machinery of the 'Huascar' was not materially damaged and that few shots struck in the vicinity of the water line. There was no danger of the ship sinking when she surrendered. This was brought about mainly by the disabling of her armament and loss of men. A fact to be remembered when we accumulate armour to protect the vitals and lay bare other portions of the ship.
Thus Chili added a useful little vessel to her naval force, but the late civil war has deprived her of the 'Blanco Encalada,' under circumstances lately familiar to us. Two more cruisers, built in France, the 'Errazuriz' and 'Pinto,' are on their way out. They are of about 2500 tons, high speed, and moderate armament.
Peru, since her crushing defeat by Chili, has been practically without any navy, and seems unable to find funds to recreate one.
The Argentine Republic may take some pride in possessing one of the fastest cruisers in the world. This vessel, designed by Mr Watts, Chief Constructor at Elswick, and built by that firm, was sold to the Argentine Government, and is now known by the somewhat inconvenient name of '25 de Mayo.' On her trial she attained a speed of over 22 knots an hour. Whether in the hands of her present possessors she will ever again accomplish such a result may well be doubted.
Brazil has two ironclads of moderate size—late acquisitions—in the 'Riachuelo,' and 'Aquidaban,' but no cruisers over 17 knots speed.
From this review it may be gathered that the number of states which aspire to own a war navy has very largely increased. In Europe, Belgium alone of states which have a sea coast is without ships of war. Even Roumania boasts a cruiser. New navies are springing up also in the far East. At present, however, the old balance of power on the sea seems undisturbed.
- ↑ For the particulars of all this modern construction I am much indebted to the excellent paper on the subject read by Mr Biles at the meeting of the Society of Naval Architects in the spring of 1891.