The Earth and Its Inhabitants/Asia/Volume 1

by Élisée Reclus

 

THE

E A R T H   A N D   I T S   I N H A B I T A N T S.

——————

A   S   I   A   .

by

ÉLISÉE RECLUS.

edited by

E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., Etc.,

and

A. H. KEANE, B. A.,
memb. of council, anthropological institute.

VOL. I.

ASIATIC RUSSIA:
CAUCASIA, ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN, SIBERIA.

ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
1, 3, and 5 BOND STREET.
1884.

CONTENTS.

 

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

			page
Chap. I.	General Remarks on Asia		1
		Plateaux: Highlands and Lowlands, p. 3. Geological Formation: Igneous Forces, p. 6. Climate: Diminution of Moisture, p. 8. Areas of Inland Drainage, p. 9. Rivers flowing Seawards, p. 12. Temperature, Rainfall, Vegetation, p. 14. Peninsulas, p. 15. Inhabitants, Culture, p. 18. Religions, p. 21. Historical Retrospect, Migrations, p. 23. European Influences, p. 24. Progress of Discovery, p. 25. Political Rivalries, p. 28.
Chap. II.	Caucasia		33
		I. Caucasia: The Ponto-Caspian Mountain System, p. 33. The Great Caucasus, p. 34. Geological Formation, Volcanic Action, p. 38. Water Systems, Snow-line, Rainfall, Glaciers, p. 40. Vegetation, Fauna, p. 43. Inhabitants: Varied Ethnical and Linguistic Elements, p. 46. Russian Conquests: Main Physical Divisions, p. 48. II. Western Caucasia: Kuban Basin, p. 50. River Systems: Kuban Basin, p. 50. Taman Peninsula, p. 53. Inhabitants: the Cherkesses, p. 54. The Abkhasians and Cossacks, p. 57. Topography, p. 60. III. Central Caucasus: Kuma and Terek Basins, p. 64. River Systems: Kuma Basin, p. 65. The Terek, p. 68. Inhabitants: the Kabards, p. 70. The Osses and Nogai Tatars, p. 71. Topography, p. 73. IV. Eastern Caucasia: Daghestan, p. 78. River Systems, p. 79. Inhabitants: the Chechenzes, p. 79. The Lezghians, Tats, and Tatars, p. 83. Topography, p. 86. V. Inoúk, Rion, and Chorukh Basins: Mingrelia, Imeritia, Svania, Lazistan, p. 88. The Climate, Flora and Fauna, p. 91. Inhabitants: the Svans and Raebians, p. 92. Imeritians, Mingrelians, and Lazes, p. 94. Topography, p. 96. VI. The Kura Basin: Georgia, Transcaucasian Tatary, p. 100. River Systems: the Kura, p. 100. Agriculture, Irrigation Works, Climate, p. 104. Lower Kura Basin: Apsheron Peninsula, p. 106. Inhabitants: the Georgians, p. 111. The Khevsurs, Pshavs, and Tûshes, p. 116. The Tatars, Talishes, Slavs, and Germans, p. 119. Topography, p. 120. VII. Russian Armenia: Ararat, Ala-göz, Plateau of Lake Gok-chai, and Araxis Basin, p. 130. Orography: Ararat, Ala-göz, p. 130. Lake Gok-chai, the Karabagh, Flora and Fauna, p. 136. The Araxis Basin, p. 139. Inhabitants: the Armenians, p. 140. Topography, p. 145. VIII. General Condition and Administration of the Caucasus, p. 150. Land Tenure, Agriculture, p. 152. Population, Industries, Trade, Education, p. 154. Religions, Finance, Administration, p. 158.
Chap. III.	The Aralo-Caspian Basin: Russian Turkestan, the Turkoman Country, Khiva, Bokhara, Region of the Upper Oxus		161
		I. General Survey, p. 164. II. The Pamir and Alaï, p. 165. Flora, Fauna, Lakes of the Pamir, p. 170. The Alai Highland, p. 171. III. The Tian-shan, p. 175. Orographic System, p. 176. Katûn and Yulduz Highlands, p. 179. Semirechinsk Region, p. 182. Alatau Highland, p. 183. Lake Issîk-kul and Western Tian-shan Highlands, p. 184. IV. Tarbagatai Highlands and Balkhash Basin, p. 189. Lake Balkhash, p. 191. Semirechinsk River System: the Ili, p. 192. V. The Aralo-Caspian Hydrographic System, p. 193. The Turkestan Deserts, p. 194. Flora and Fauna of Turkestan, p. 195. Water System: the Sir, p. 198. The Oxus River System, p 201. The Aral Sea, p. 208. The Turkoman Deserts and Highlands, p. 213. The Atrek and Gurgan Rivers, p. 214. The Ust-urt Plateau, p. 215. East Coast of the Caspian, p. 217. VI. Inhabitants of the Aralo-Caspian Regions, p. 219. The Turkomans, p. 220. The Kara-Kalpaks and Kirghiz, p. 225. The Taranchis and Dungans, p. 231. The Uzbegs, p. 233. The Sartes, Tajiks, and Galchas, p. 234. VII. States of the Aralo-Caspian Basin: I. Baktriana, or Afghan Turkestan, p. 237. Wakhan, p. 238. Badakshan, p. 240. Kunduz and Bamian, p. 244. Khulm, Balkh, Andkhoi, p. 247. II. Merv: the Southern Turkomans, p. 250. III. Bokhara, p. 252. Shignan and Roshan, p. 253. Darvaz and Karateghin, p. 253. Hissar: the Iron Gate, p. 255. Topography: Bokhara, p. 257. IV. Khiva, p. 263. V. Russian Turkestan, p. 268. Ferghana Basin: Topography, p. 272. Samarkand, p. 272. Kulja Basin: Topography, 284. Administration of Turkestan, 287.
		I. Siberia, p. 292. Progress of Conquest and Discovery, p. 293. Water Highways, Portages, Highlands, p. 297. River Systems, p. 300. Northern Seaboard, p. 303. Pacific Seaboard: Transbaikalia, p. 304. Climate, p. 305. Flora, p. 310. Fauna, p. 314. Inhabitants: the Chûdes, p. 317. II. The Altaï Highlands, p. 319. Flora and Fauna of the Altaï, p. 323. Inhabitants: the Kalmuks, Tatars, and Russians, p. 324. Topography, p. 327. III. The Ob Basin: Governments of Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Tomsk, Tobolsk, Eastern Districts of the Governments of Perm and Orenburg, p. 329. The Irtish Basin, p. 330. Course of the Ob, p. 334. Inhabitants of the Ob Basin: the Voguls, p. 338. The Ostiaks, p. 340. The Ural Mining Districts, p. 344. Topography of West Siberia, p. 346. IV. Yenesei-Baikal Basin, p. 352. Basin of the Western Yenesei, p. 352. Inhabitants: the Chûdes, p. 355. The Soyots and Karagasses, p. 356. The Tunguses, p. 358. Topography, p. 361. The Baikal-Angara Basin, p. 364. The Tunka Highlands, p. 366. Lake Baikal, p. 368. The Angara Water System, p. 373. Inhabitants: the Buriats, p. 375. Topography, p. 378. V. Basin of the Lena: Shores of the Arctic Ocean, p. 382. The Lena and its Inhabitants, p. 384. The Yana, Kolima, and Indigirka Rivers, the Arctic Islands, New Siberia, p. 388. Inhabitants: the Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and Chuvantzes, p. 393. Topography, p. 398. VI. Bering Peninsula, Basin of the Anadir, and Kamchatka, p. 399. Bering Strait and Sea, p. 402. Fauna and Flora, p. 406. Inhabitants: the Chukchis, p. 408. The Koriaks and Kamehadales, p. 413. VII. The Stanovoi Highlands, Amur Basin, Russian Manchuria, p. 417. The Stanovoi Uplands: the Yablonoi Range, p. 419. The Daûrian Plateau, p. 420. The Amur River System, p. 423. The Sungari and Usuri Rivers, p. 425. The Lower Amur and its Delta, p. 428. The Manchurian Seaboard, p. 431. Climate of Manchuria, p. 432. Manchurian Fauna and Flora, p. 434. Inhabitants: the Golds and other Tungus Tribes, p. 436. The Tazi, Mandzi, Giliaks, and Russians, p. 437. The Kamenshaki, p. 440. Topography, p. 442. VIII. Sakhalin, p. 448. Highlands, p. 452. Climate, Fauna, Flora, p. 453. Inhabitants: the Ainos and Oroks, p. 455. Topography, p. 457. IX. Material Condition and Administration of Siberia, p. 459. Social Elements: the Exiles and Outlaws, p. 459. The Siberian Russians: the Commune, p. 463. Religious Sects: the Stranniki, p. 465. Agriculture, the Chase and Fisheries, p. 465. Mining Industries, p. 467. Manufactures, Trade, p. 469. Highways of Communication, the Trakt, Railway Projects, p. 471. Education, Administration, p. 472. Siberian Political Life, p. 474. Growth of the Russian Empire, p. 475. Merv, p. 478. The Dera-göz, 481. The Akhal Tekke Country, 483. Races of Asiatic Russia grouped according to their Affinities and Religions, p. 485.
Appendix:	Statistical Tables		489
Index			497

 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

 

 

MAPS PRINTED IN COLOURS.

			page			page
1.	Hypsographical Map of Asia.	Frontispiece.		4.	The Delta of the Amu-daria	205
2.	Ethnographical Map of the Caucasus		46	5.	Ethnographical Map of Northern Asia	303
3.	Lakes Balkhash and Issik-kul		191	6.	Victoria Bay, or Gulf of Peter the Great	432

——————

PLATES.

Cliffs in the "Yellow Earth," north of Tai-yuen, Shan-si	To face page	11	Kirghiz Horsemen	To face page	226
The Upper Yang-tse-kiang		13	Kirghiz crossing a River		229
The Darial Defile		42	Tajiks of Bokhara		234
Jews of the Caucasus		56	Colossal Idols, Upper Bamian Valley		245
Patigorsk—View taken from the Mashuka Slopes		73	The Iron Gate Defile on the Karshi-Derbent Route		257
Svan Types		92	Bokhara—Assembly in front of the Mosque		258
Mingrelian Types and Costumes		95	Khiva		265
Georgian Types and Costumes		111	Bukhtarma Valley—Altaï Highlands		319
Imerian Types and Costumes—Group of Dancers		115	Ostiak Types and Costumes		341
Khevsur in Armour		118	Yekaterinburg		348
A Street in Tiflis		124	General View of Tobolsk		350
Armenian Types and Costumes		140	General View of Omsk		351
Town of Girùsi		149	Tungus Types and Costumes		359
Shchovskiy Glacier		173	Irkutsk—View taken before the Fire of 1878		380
Kizil-kum Desert—Dussibai Wells		194	Chukchi Types and Costumes		408
Lake Iskander-kul		202	General view of Petropavlovsk		416
Shores of the Caspian		208	Gold Types and Costumes		436
Turkoman Customs—Pursuit of the Bride		222	Port of Ayan, Sea of Okhotsk		442

ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT.

	ASIATIC RUSSIA.
fig.		page
1.	Plateaux and Plains of Central Asia	3
2.	Parallelism of the Main Asiatic Ranges	4
3.	Mount Everest	5
4.	The Han-haï: a dried-up Sea-bed	8
5.	Arid Regions and Closed Basins of Asia	11
6.	Isobars in January	13
7.	Isobars in July	14
8.	Curves of the Eastern Asiatic Seaboard and Islands	16
9.	Density of the Asiatic Populations	17
10.	Distribution of the Asiatic Races	19
11.	Chief Religions of Central Asia	22
12.	Chief Itineraries of Central Asia	27
13.	European Influence in Asia	29
	CAUCASIA.
14.	Bed of the Caspian	35
15.	Geological Formations of the Central Caucasus	37
16.	Hot Springs and Naphtha Regions in the Caucasus	39
17.	Profile of the Caucasus as seen from Patigorsk	40
18.	Rainfall of the Caucasus	41
19.	The Kazbek: View taken from the Kazbek Station	43
20.	Kazbek and Devdoraki Glaciers	44
21.	Forests of the Caucasus	45
22.	The Western Caucasus seen from off Cape Kodor	50
23.	The Akhtari Liman	52
24.	The Kuka-Oba Mud Volcano	51
25.	Abkhasian Type	58
26.	Cossack Sentinel	59
27.	Valley of the Bzib	61
28.	The Taman Peninsula	62
29.	Valleys of Erosion in the Kuban Basin	63
30.	Passanaùr, on the Tiflis-Vladikavkaz Route	65
31.	The Elbruz Group	66
32.	Ramification of the Kalaûs	67
33.	Delta and flooded Districts of the Lower Terek	68
34.	The Terek Floods of 1863	69
35.	Patigorsk and the Region of Thermal Waters	74
36.	The Vladikavkaz-Ananur Route through the Terek Valley	76
37.	The Tebulos-inta Group	77
38.	Mouths of the Terek and Lower Sulak	80
39.	The Kuba District	81
40.	Nogai Youth	84
41.	Mount Gûnib	85
42.	Derbent	87
43.	Mouth of the Rion	89
44.	Upper Ingûr Valley	93
45.	Mingrelian Lady	95
46.	Kutaïs and the Rion and Kvirila Junction	97
47.	Poti	98
48.	Batûm	99
49.	Akhalkalaki Plateau	101
50.	Tatar Type	102
51.	The Kura and Araxis Confluence	103
52.	Mouths of the Kura	106
53.	Chief Regions of Earthquakes in Caucasia	108
54.	Oscillations of the Baku Coast during the last 1,500 Years	109
55.	The Apsheron Peninsula	110
56.	Mtzkhet, Ancient Capital of Georgia	112
57.	The Khevsur, Tûsh, and Pshav Lands	117
58.	The Suram Pass and Mesk Mountains	121
59.	The Kura Valley between Gori and Mtzkhet	122
60.	Tiflis	125
61.	Yelizavetpol and Vicinity	126
62.	The Telav Basin	127
63.	Baku and Cape Bail-Burni	128
64.	Lenkoran	129
65.	Recent Russian Conquests	131
66.	Ararat	132
67.	Mount Ararat	133
68.	Ala-göz	135
69.	Lake Gok-chai	136
70.	The Alapolarim Lava Streams	137
71.	Araxis and Zanga Basin	143
72.	Armenian Woman	144
73.	The Kars-chai Valley: Kars and Alexandrapol	146
74.	Nakhichevan	148
75.	Progress of Russian Conquest	150
76.	Fever Districts in Caucasia	151
77.	Density of the Population of the Caucasus in 1873 per Square Mile	153
78.	Highways in Caucasia	154
79.	Section of the Route from Vladikavkaz to Jufa	155
80.	Shiahs and Sunnites in Eastern Caucasia	156
81.	Baku Harbour	157
82.	Stavropol	159
	THE ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN.
83. 83.	Routes of Explorers in the Aralo-Caspian Basin	163
84 84.	Russian Encroachments in Turkestan	164
85.	Routes of Explorers in the Eastern Pamir	166
86.	The Alaï and Trans-Alaï Range	168
87	Relief of the Highlands and Plateaux between the Hindu Kush and Tian-shan	170
88.	The Alaï Plateau	172
89.	The Shchurovskiy Glacier	173
90.	Routes of Explorers in the Western Pamir	174
91.	Relative Area of the Tian-shan, Alps, and Pyrenees	175
92.	Relative Relief of the Tian-shan, Alps, and Pyrenees	176
93.	Chief Crests of the Tian-shan	177
94.	Eastern Chains of the Tian-shan	178
95.	Routes of Explorers in the Eastern Tian-shan	180
96.	Ovis Karelini, Argali, Ovis Poli	181
97.	The Aktogoi Defile	183
98.	Western Chains of the Tian-shan	186
99.	Routes of Explorers in the Western Tian-shan	187
100.	Saûru and Tarbagatai	190
101.	Vegetation of the Kilil-kum	196
102.	Range of Vegetation in Turkestan	197
103.	Petrov Glacier	198
104.	Lower Part of the Iir-tash Glacier	199
105.	The Sir Delta	201
106.	Lake Victoria, or Sari-kul	203
107.	Map in the Catalonian Atlas of 1375	206
108.	Valley of the Uzboi at the Aidin Wells	207
109.	The Balkan Gulf	208
110.	Inundation of the Oxus in 1878	209
111.	The Aral Sea	210
112.	Old River Beds of the Aralo-Caspian Basin	211
113.	Ak-tau and Mortviy-kultuk	212
114.	Entrance to the Kara-boghaz	213
115.	The Tuk-karagan Lakes	214
116.	Tentiak-sor	215
117.	Ogurchinskiy Island	216
118.	Kulali Island	217
119.	Turkoman Female Head-dress	221
120.	Tekke Turkoman Oasis in the Atok	223
121.	Area of the Turkoman Raids South of Kizil-arvat	224
122.	A Wealthy Kirghiz	227
123.	A Kirghiz Woman	228
124.	Population of the Ili Basin	232
125.	Sarte Type	233
126.	Population of Ferghana	234
127.	A Tajik Mollah	235
128.	Kila-panja, on the Upper Oxus: Forts at the Foot of the Pamir	239
129.	East Badakshan	241
130.	Badakshan and Kunduz	242
131.	Bamian Pass and Kunduz Route	243
132.	Ruins of Balkh and Mazar-i sherîf	244
133.	Saripul and Shibirkhan Valley	246
134.	The Maimene Valley	247
135.	Khanates of Afghan Turkestan West of the Oxus	248
136.	Merv and Sarakhs Oases	251
137.	Ak-tash Valley and Mountain	254
138.	Shehr-i-sebs and Karshi	256
139.	Bokhara: Ruins in the Interior of the City	259
140.	Oasis of Bokhara	260
141.	Khiva	261
142.	A Minaret in Khiva	262
143.	Khiva: Exterior of a Mosque	263
144.	Krasnovodsk Bay	264
145.	Cheleken Island and Michael Gulf	266
146.	Hassan-kaleh Bay	267
147.	Ashur-adeh	268
148.	Valleys of the Atrek and Gurgen	269
149.	Samarkand	270
150.	Samarkand: Approach to the Citadel	271
151.	Samarkand: The Gur-emir Tomb of Tamerlane	272
152.	Varzaminor: Upper Zarafshan Valley	273
153.	Oasis of the Zarafshan	275
154.	From Kokan to Marghilan	277
155.	Khojend: General View	279
156.	Khojend and Neighbourhood	280
157.	Plain of Tashkend	281
158.	A Street in Tashkend	282
159.	Kulja and Neighbouring Mines	285
160.	Disputed Territory in Kulja	286
161.	Chinese Type, Kulja	287
162.	Projected Railway Lines in Western Asia	289
	SIBERIA.
163.	West Siberia, according to Herberstein	293
164.	Sakhalin, according to La Pérouse	295
165.	Gulf of Castries: La Pérouse Gate	296
166.	Water Highways and Portages across Siberia	298
167.	Duration of the Frost and Thaw on the Yenisei and Lena	300
168.	Drift Ice on the Banks of the Yenisei	301
169.	Shores of the Yenisei worn by Glacial Action	302
170.	Banks of the Yenisei: Ice-formed Levee	304
171.	Climate of Yakutsh	306
172.	Northern Limit of Forest Vegetation	309
173.	Trailing Larch 150 Years old: Quarter of the Natural Size	310
174.	Larch Forest on the Boganida, a Tributary of the Katanga	312
175.	Range of Animal Species in North Asia	313
176.	The Chindagûtui, a Tributary of the Irtish, Province of Semipalatinsk	320
177.	Lake Telezkoye	321
178.	Zmeïnogorsk	328
179.	Lake Zaïsan	330
180.	The Ust-Kamenogorsk Defile	331
181.	Lakes Chany and Sartlam in 1870	332
182.	Dried-up Streams in the Barnaûl District	334
183.	Projected Canals between the Ob and Yenisei	335
184.	Network of Streams at the Ob and Ket Junction	335
185.	Lower Course and Mouth of the Ob	337
186.	Lakes and Marshes in the Iset Basin	345
187.	Yekaterinburg and Berezovskiy	348
188.	Upper Yenisei Basin and Minusinsk Steppes	353
189.	Rock Inscription on the Banks of the Yenisei	361
190.	Region of the Yenisei Gold Mines	362
191.	From Krasnoyarsk to Kansk	363
192.	The Munku-sardik Group	365
193.	Munku-sardik and Kamar-daban	367
194.	The "Cup" at the Source of the Oka	368
195.	Depths of the Western Baikal	370
196.	The Angara below the Padunskiy Rapid	374
197.	Rapids of the Angara	375
198.	Populations of the Irkustsk Government	381
199.	Coast of the Taimir Peninsula	383
200.	Old Lake traversed by the Vitim	384
201.	Lena Delta	386
202.	Archipelago of New Siberia	389
203.	Routes of Anjou and Wrangell	390
204.	Konyam Bay: the Vega at Anchor	391
205.	Yakutsk	397
206.	Volcanoes at Cape Povorotnoii, South of Avacha Bay	400
207.	Bering Sea	403
208.	Bering Strait	404
209.	Currents of the Bering Waters	405
210.	Avacha Bay	415
211.	Plateaux and Highlands of East Siberia	418
212.	Lake Khanka	426
213.	Isthmus of Kizi	428
214.	Mouths of the Amur	429
215.	Bay of the Golden Horn	430
216.	Bay of Castries	432
217.	Harbour of Olga	433
218.	Herbaceous Vegetation on the Islands of the Amur	435
219.	Blagovypshchensk, on the Amur	444
220.	Nikolayevsk	445
221.	America Bay	446
222.	The Possiet Inlets	447
223.	La Pérouse Strait	449
224.	Sakhalin: Cape La Jonquière	450
225.	Mamia Rinzo Strait	451
226.	Sakhalin	453
227.	Aino Girl	454
228.	Sakhalin: the Dui Valley	456
229.	Port of Muraviov	457
230.	Density of the Siberian Population	460
231.	Produce of East Siberian Sable-hunting from 1850 to 1855	466
232.	Gold-washings in the Amur Basin	468
233.	Vladivostok and the Eastern Bosporus	473