The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Abbot

ABBOT (“father”), originally the head and ruler of a community of monks; in the Greek Church hegumeos, “leader,” or archimandrite, “ruler of the fold,” though the latter is oftener an abbot-general with hegumenoi under him. Among the Dominicans the head of a convent was called præpositus, a “provost,” or prior; among the Franciscans custos, “guardian”; among the Camaldules major. The name survives in the orders derived from Benedictines, as the Cistercians, Bernhardines and Trappists. The term “abbot” originated in the East, and was first applied to any monk noted for piety, but at length restricted to the superior. The first abbots were laymen like the rest of the monks in general; the lowest clergy took precedence of them, and for sacraments they had to attend the nearest church: but the extreme inconvenience or even impossibility of this when the monastery was in a desert or far from a town forced the ordination of the abbots. Abbots could attend councils, and the second Council of Nice, 787, allowed them to ordain monks to the inferior orders; and ultimately nearly all monks were ordained to some grade of the ministry. To this elevation was added that of allowing pluralities of abbacies, originally forbidden, and even in the 6th century allowed only in special cases; but it increased till early in the 10th century one German prelate had 12 abbeys under him, corresponding to the archimandrites of the East. Thus, and by the increase of numbers and corporate wealth in the great abbeys, the abbots themselves became prelates of vast power. Still another cause developed this,– the exemption of abbeys from control of the bishops. They were originally all subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and in the West generally continued so till the 11th century; this is expressly ordered in Justinian's code. The exactions of the bishops, however, rendered the exemption increasingly frequent; beginning in 456 the practice grew, and was much helped forward by Gregory the Great, who relieved many abbots from episcopal control and made them responsible directly to the Pope. By the 12th century this had become and evil of the first order in ecclesiastical government, the bishop usually having no authority whatever over the chief centres of religious and often secular power in his diocese; and one abbot, of Fulda in Germany, claimed precedence over the Archbishop of Cologne. Next came an encroachment on the functions of the bishops: from conferring the tonsure and the office of reader they came to be equally associated with the bishops in consecrations; and while originally the bishop chose the abbot from the monks of the house, and then the right of election was transferred to the monks, the abbots came sometimes to choose their own successors. This, however, was stopped in some countries by a counter-process; the popes in Italy and the kings in France assuming to themselves the right of appointment.

Otherwise the choice was by secret election of and from the monks of the house, unless it furnished no fit candidate, when choice might be made from another monastery of one well instructed himself and competent to instruct others, of legitimate birth and at least 25 years old. His election was for life. His power was absolute except as restricted by the canons of the Church. His exaction of deference in the routine of life was royal: all rose and bowed when he entered the church or chapter, his letters and orders were received kneeling, and no monk could sit in his presence or leave it without permission. They had immense political power, and were on equal terms of intimacy with the greatest in the realm. Many of the abbots were an honor to their countries, and their schools were seminaries of learning and virtue.

In time the title was improperly conferred on others who had not connection with monastic life, or sometimes even with the Church,– on the principal of a body of parochial clergy or the king's chaplain, and the chief magistrate of Genoa was called “Abbot of the People.” Lay abbots, so called, originated in temporarily handing over the revenues of an abbey to some noble, or even the king, for a great public exigency, the noble being titular abbot, but enough of the revenues being reserved from sequestration to support the house. Once in lay hands they usually remained there, and most of the Frankish and Burgundian sovereigns were titular abbots of great monasteries, whose revenues they applied to their own uses. This often happened from the monastery's voluntarily placing itself under the “commendation” of some noble for protection; and there were sometimes two lines of abbots,– one lay, taking the major part of the income without service, the other clerical, doing the work. This was mostly reformed during the latter part of the 10th century. The Council of Trent restored to the monasteries the right of electing their abbots. The newly elected abbot is then confirmed by the bishop or in certain cases by the pope.

In convent cathedrals, where the bishop filled the place of the abbot, the superior's duties were performed by a prior. In other convents the prior was the vice-abbot. The superiors of cells, or small monastic establishments dependent on the larger ones, were also called priors; they were appointed by the abott and held office at his pleasure. There were three classes of abbots: mitred abbots, croziered abbots, or those allowed to bear a crozier, and œcumenical abbots, ruling the houses of a province or a country. Abbots hold a rank immediately after bishops. Their mitres must be less costly than those of bishops, and they are assigned a temporary throne. There are now 17 mitred abbots in the United States, two in Canada, 10 in England, two in Ireland and one in Scotland. Consult Feazey, H. J., ‘Monasticism’; Montalembert, ‘Monks of the West’ (ed. 1896, Vol. I); Bingham, ‘Origines’; Martene, ‘Rites of the Ancient Monasteries’; Gasquet (Cardinal), ‘English Monastic Life’ (London 1904); Taunton, ‘English Black Monks of St. Benedict’ (London 1898).