The Geographical Distribution of Animals/Chapter 18

by Alfred Russel Wallace

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS.

Order I.—PASSERES.

Family 1.—TURDIDÆ. (21 Genera, 205 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —

The extensive and familiar group of Thrushes ranges over every region and sub-region, except New Zealand. It abounds most in the North Temperate regions, and has its least development in the Australian region. Thrushes are among the most perfectly organized of birds, and it is to this cause, perhaps, as well as to their omnivorous diet, that they have been enabled to establish themselves on a number of remote islands. Peculiar species of true thrush are found in Norfolk Island, and in the small Lord Howes' Island nearer Australia; the Island of St. Thomas in the Gulf of Guinea has a peculiar species; while the Mid-Atlantic island Tristan d'Acunha,—one of the most remote and isolated spots on the globe,—has a peculiarly modified form of thrush. Several of the smaller West Indian Islands have also peculiar species or genera of thrushes.

The family is of somewhat uncertain extent, blending insensibly with the warblers (Sylviidæ) as well as with the Indian bulbuls (Pycnonotidæ), while one genus, usually placed in it (Myiophonus) seems to agree better with Enicurus among the Cinclidæ. The genera here admitted into the thrush family are the following, the numbers prefixed to some of the genera indicating their position in Gray's Hand List of the Genera and Species of Birds:—

(¹¹⁴³) Brachypteryx (8 sp.), Nepaul to Java and Ceylon (this may belong to the Timaliidæ); Turdus (100 sp.) has the range of the whole family, abounding in the Palæarctic, Oriental and Neotropical regions, while it is less plentiful in the Nearctic and Ethiopian, and very scarce in the Australian; (⁹³⁴) Oreocincla (11 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions, Australia and Tasmania; (⁹⁴²) Rhodinocichla (1 sp.), Venezuela; (⁹⁴⁶) Melanoptila (1 sp.), Honduras; (^{947 948}) Catharus (10 sp.) Mexico to Equador; (^{949 950}) Margarops (4 sp.), Hayti and Porto Rico to St. Lucia; (⁹⁵¹) Nesocichla (1 sp.), Tristan d'Acunha; (⁹⁵²) Geocichla (8 sp.), India to Formosa and Celebes, Timor and North Australia; (^{954 955}) Monticola (8 sp.), Central Europe to South Africa and to China, Philippine Islands, Gilolo and Java; (⁹⁵⁶) Orocætes (3 sp.), Himalayas and N. China; Zoothera (3 sp.) Himalayas, Aracan, Java, and Lombok; Mimus (20 sp.) Canada to Patagonia, West Indies and Galapagos; (⁹⁶²) Oreoscoptes (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains and Mexico; (⁹⁶³) Melanotis (2 sp.), South Mexico and Guatemala; (⁹⁶⁴) Galeoscoptes (1 sp.), Canada and Eastern United States to Cuba and Panama; (^{965 966}) Mimocichla (5 sp.), Greater Antilles; (^{967 968}) Harporhynchus (7 sp.), North America, from the great lakes to Mexico; Cinclocerthia (3 sp.), Lesser Antilles; (⁹⁷⁰) Rhamphocinclus (1 sp.), Lesser Antilles; Chætops (3 sp.), South Africa; Cossypha = Bessonornis (15 sp.) Ethiopian region and Palestine.

Family 2.—SYLVIIDÆ. (74 Genera, 640 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4

This immense family, comprising all the birds usually known as "warblers," is, as here constituted, of almost universal distribution. Yet it is so numerous and preponderant over the whole Eastern Hemisphere, that it may be well termed an Old-World group; only two undoubted genera with very few species belonging to the Nearctic region, while two or three others whose position is somewhat doubtful, are found in California and the Neotropical region.

Canon Tristram, who has paid great attention to this difficult group, has kindly communicated to me a MSS. arrangement of the genera and species, which, with a very few additions and alterations, I implicitly follow. He divides the Sylviidæ into seven sub-families, as follows:

1. Drymœcinæ (15 genera, 194 sp.), confined to the Old World and Australia, and especially abundant in the three Tropical regions. 2. Calamoherpinæ (11 genera, 75 sp.), has the same general distribution as the last, but is scarce in the Australian and abundant in the Palæarctic region; 3. Phylloscopinæ (11 genera, 139 sp.), has the same distribution as the entire family, but is most abundant in the Oriental and Palæarctic regions. 4. Sylviinæ (6 genera, 33 sp.), most abundant in the Palæarctic region, very scarce in the Australian and Oriental regions, absent from America. 5. Ruticillinæ (10 genera, 50 sp.); entirely absent from America and Australia; abounds in the Oriental and Palæarctic regions. 6. Saxicolinæ (12 genera, 126 sp.), absent from America (except the extreme north-west), abundant in the Oriental region and moderately so in the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Australian. 7. Accentorinæ (6 genera, 21 sp.), absent from the Ethiopian region and South America, most abundant in Australia, one small genus (Sialia), in North America.

The distribution of the several genera arranged under these sub-families, is as follows:

1. Drymœcinæ.—(⁷³⁶) Orthotomus (13 sp.), all the Oriental region; (⁷³⁷) Prinia (11 sp.), all the Oriental region; (^{738 740 742 746}) Drymœca (83 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, most abundant in the former; (^{743 to 745 and 749 to 752}) Cisticola (32 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, with South Europe, China and Australia; (⁷⁴¹) Suya (5 sp.), Nepal to South China and Formosa; (⁷⁷³) Sphenæacus (7 sp.), Australia, New Zealand, and Chatham Island, with one species (?) in South Africa; (^{770 772}) Megalurus (4 sp.), Central India to Java and Timor; (^{774 775}) Poodytes (2 sp.), Australia; (⁷⁶⁶) Amytis (3 sp.), Australia; (⁷⁶⁸) Sphenura (4 sp.), Australia; (⁷⁶⁴) Malurus (16 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (^{762 763}) Chthonicola (3 sp.), Australia; (⁷⁶¹) Calamanthus (2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (⁷⁵⁹) Camaroptera (5 sp.), Africa and Fernando Po; (⁷⁵³) Apalis (1 sp.), South Africa.

2. Calamoherpinæ.—(^{777 to 781 and sp. 2968}) Acrocephalus (35 sp.), Palæarctic, Ethiopian, continental part of Oriental region, Moluccas, Caroline Islands, and Australia; (^{782 818}) Dumeticola (4 sp.), Nepal to East Thibet, Central Asia, high regions; (^{783 790}) Potamodus (3 sp.), Central and South Europe, and East Thibet; (^{789 and sp. 2969}) Lusciniola (1 sp.), South Europe; (^{791 792}) Locustella (8 sp.), Palæarctic region to Central India and China; (⁷³⁹) Horites (5 sp.), Nepal to North-west China and Formosa; (^784—786) Bradyptetus = Cettia (10 sp.), South Europe, Palestine, and South Africa; (^{747 748}) Catriscus (3 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Bernieria (2 sp.), and (⁷⁵⁶) Ellisia (3 sp.), Madagascar; (^{832 a}) Mystacornis (1 sp.), Madagascar; (⁷⁸⁷) Calamodus (2 sp.), Europe and Palestine; (⁷³⁴) Tatare (2 sp.) Samoa to Marquesas Islands.

3. Phylloscopinæ.^[1]—Phylloscopus (18 sp.), all Palæarctic and Oriental regions to Batchian; (^{757 758 820}) Eremomela (16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (⁷⁵⁴) Eroessa (1 sp.), Madagascar; ^[1]Hypolais (12 sp.), Palæarctic region, all India, Timor, North and South Africa; (^{815 816 819}) Abrornis (26 sp.), Oriental region; (⁸¹⁴) Reguloides (4 sp.), Palæarctic and continental Oriental regions; (⁸²²) Sericornis (7 sp.), Australia and Tasmania (^{823 824 1451}) Acanthiza (14 sp.), Australia and New Caledonia; (⁸²¹) Regulus (7 sp.), all Palæarctic and Nearctic regions and south to Guatemala; (⁸⁹⁰) Polioptila (13 sp,); Paraguay to New Mexico; (⁸²⁵) Gerygone (22 sp.), Australia, Papuan and Timor groups, New Zealand and Norfolk Island.

4. Sylviinæ.—(⁷⁹³) Aedon (9 sp.), Spain and Palestine, to East and South Africa; (⁸⁵⁸) Drymodes (2 sp.), Australia; (⁸⁰⁰) Pyrophthalma (2 sp.), South Europe and Palestine; (⁸⁰¹) Melizophilus (3 sp.), South-west Europe and North-east Africa; (^{802 804}) Sylvia = Alsecus (8 sp.), Palæarctic region to India and Ceylon, and North-east Africa; (^{806 809}) Curruca (7 sp.), Central and South Europe, Madeira, Palestine, Central India, North-east Africa, and South Africa.

5. Ruticillinæ.—(⁸²⁷) Luscinia (2 sp.), West Asia, Europe, North Africa; (⁸³⁹) Cyanecula (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, India, Ceylon, and China; (⁸⁴⁰) Calliope (2 sp.), North Asia, Himalayas, Central India, and China; (⁸³⁸) Erithacus (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, Japan, and North China; (^{828 830 837}) Ruticilla (20 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions to Senegal and Abyssinia, and east to Timor; abounds in Himalayas; (⁸²⁹) Chæmarrhornis (1 sp.), Himalayas; (^{831 832 834}) Larvivora (10 sp.), Oriental region and Japan; (⁸³³) Notodela (3 sp.), Himalayas, Pegu, Formosa, Java; (⁸³⁵) Tarsiger (2 sp.), Nepal; (⁸⁴¹) Grandala (1 sp.), High Himalayas of Nepal.

6. Saxicolinæ.—(⁹⁷⁵) Copsychus (7 sp.), all Oriental region and Madagascar; (⁹⁷⁶) Kittacincla (5 sp.), Oriental region to Ceylon, Andaman Islands, Formosa, and Borneo; (^794—799) Thamnobia (10 sp.), Ethiopian region and India to foot of Himalayas; (⁹⁷⁷) Gervasia (2 sp.), Madagascar and Seychelle Islands; (^{845 847}) Dromolæa (18 sp.), Africa to South Europe, Palestine, North-west India, and North China; (^{842 843 846}) Saxicola (36 sp.), Africa, North-west India, whole Palæarctic region, migrating to Alaska and Greenland; (^{848 849}) Oreicola (5 sp.), Timor, Lombok, and Burmah; (⁸⁴⁴) Cercomela (6 sp.), North-east Africa to North-west India; (⁸⁵⁰) Pratincola (15 sp.), Europe, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions to Celebes and Timor; (⁹¹⁷) Ephthianura (3 sp.), Australia; (^851—856) Petrœca (17 sp.), Australian region, Papua to New Zealand, Chatham and Auckland Islands, and Samoa; (⁸⁵⁷) Miro (2 sp.), New Zealand (doubtfully placed here).

7. Accentorinæ.—(⁷⁷¹) Cinclorhamphus (2 sp.), Australia; (⁸⁶⁰) Origma (1 sp.), East Australia; (⁸⁵⁹) Sialia (8 sp.), United States to Guatemala; (⁸⁶¹) Accentor (12 sp.), Palæarctic region to Himalayas and North-west China; (⁷⁰³) Orthonyx (4 sp.), East Australia and New Zealand (doubtfully placed here).

The following two genera, which have been usually classed as Ampelidæ, are arranged by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin in the Sylviidæ:—

(¹³⁶²) Myiadestes (8 sp.), Peru and Bolivia, along the Andes to Mexico and California, also the Antilles; (¹³⁶⁴) Cichlopsis (1 sp.), Brazil.

Family 3.—TIMALIIDÆ. (35 Genera, 240 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— 2 — 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2 — 4

The Timaliidæ, or babbling thrushes, are a group of small strong-legged active birds, mostly of dull colours, which are especially characteristic of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound, while they are much less plentiful in Australia and Africa. The Indo-Chinese sub-region is the head quarters of the family, whence it diminishes rapidly in all directions in variety of both generic and specific forms. Viscount Walden has kindly assisted me in the determination of the limits of this family, as to which there is still much difference of opinion. The distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows; and as the genera are widely scattered in the Hand List, reference numbers are prefixed in every case.

(^{1023—1026 1008}) Pomatorhinus (27 sp.), the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines), Australia and New Guinea; (¹⁰²⁷) Pterorhinus (3 sp.), North China, East Thibet; (^{1029 1030}) Malacocircus (9 sp.), Continental India and Ceylon, Arabia, Nubia; (¹⁰³¹) Chatarrhæa (5 sp.), Abyssinia, Palestine, India, Nepal, Burmah, and Philippines; (¹⁰³²) Layardia (3 sp.), India and Ceylon; (¹⁰³³) Acanthoptila (1 sp.), Nepal; (¹⁰³⁴) Cinclosoma (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (^{1035 1036}) Crateropus (18 sp.), all Africa, Persia; (¹⁰³⁷) Hypergerus (1 sp.), West Africa; (¹⁰³⁸) Cichladusa (3 sp.), Tropical Africa; (¹⁰³⁹) Garrulax (23 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines); (¹⁰⁴⁰) Janthocincla (10 sp.), Nepal, to East Thibet, Sumatra, Formosa; (^{1041 1042}) Gampsorhynchus (2 sp.), Himalayas; (¹⁰⁴⁹) Grammatoptila (1 sp.), North India; (^1043—1045) Trochalopteron (24 sp.), all India to China and Formosa; (¹⁰⁴⁶) Actinodura (4 sp.), Nepal to Burmah, 3,000-10,000 feet; (¹⁰⁴⁷) Pellorneum (4 sp.), Nepal to Ceylon, Tenasserim; (^{1158 1159}) Timalia (12 sp.), Malaya;^[2] (¹¹⁶⁰) Dumetia (2 sp.), Central India and Ceylon; (¹¹⁶²) Stachyris (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Sumatra, Formosa; (¹¹⁶⁴) Pyctorhis (3 sp.), India to Ceylon and Burmah; (¹¹⁶⁵) Mixornis (8 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya; (¹¹⁶⁷) Malacopteron (3 sp.), Malaya; (^{1168 1169}) Alcippe (15 sp.), Ceylon and South India, Himalayas to Aracan, Malaya, Formosa, New Guinea; (¹¹⁷⁰) Macronus (2 sp.), Malaya; (¹¹⁷¹) Cacopitta (5 sp.), Malaya; (¹¹⁷²) Trichastoma (11 sp.), Nepal, Burmah, Malaya, Celebes; (¹¹⁷³) Napothera (6 sp.), Malaya; (¹¹⁷⁴) Drymocataphus (8 sp.), Burmah, Malaya, Ceylon, Timor; (¹¹⁷⁵) Turdinus (5 sp.), Khasia Hills, Malacca, Tenasserim; (¹¹⁷⁶) Trichixos (1 sp.), Borneo, Malacca; (¹⁰⁰⁴) Sibia (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Tenasserim, Formosa; (^{1177 1178}) Alethe (4 sp.), West Africa; (^{1178 a}) Oxylabes (1 sp.), Madagascar; (¹⁰⁵⁰) Psophodes (2 sp.), South, East, and West Australia; (¹⁰⁴⁸) Turnagra (3 sp.), New Zealand.

Family 4.—PANURIDÆ. (4 Genera, 13 Species).

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	1. 2 — 4	— — — —	— — 3 —	— — — —

This new family is adopted, at the suggestion of Professor Newton, to include some peculiar groups of Himalayan birds whose position has usually been among the Timaliidæ or the Paridæ, but which are now found to be allied to our Bearded Reedling. The supposed affinity of this bird for the Tits has been long known to be erroneous, and the family Panuridæ was formed for its reception (Yarrell's British Birds, 4th edit. p. 512). The genera having hitherto been widely scattered in systematic works, are referred to by the numbers of Mr. G. E. Gray's Hand List.

(¹⁹⁰¹) Paradoxornis (3 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; (¹⁹⁰⁴) Conostoma (1 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; (⁸⁷⁶) Suthora (8 sp.), Himalayas to North-west China, Formosa; (⁸⁷⁷) Chlenasicus (1 sp.), Darjeeling; (⁸⁸⁷) Panurus (1 sp.), Central and Southern Europe; (¹⁹⁰²) Heteromorpha (1 sp.), Nepal, 10,000 feet altitude; Cholornis (1 sp.), Moupin in East Thibet.

Family 5.—CINCLIDÆ. (4 Genera, 27 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3 —	— 2 — 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — ?4	1. 2. 3. 4	1 — — —

The Cinclidæ consist of a number of more or less thrush-like ground-birds, of which the most remarkable are the Dippers, forming the genus Cinclus. These are curiously distributed, from the Palæarctic region as a centre, to the alpine districts of North and South America; while the three genera which are here included as somewhat allied to Cinclus, all inhabit the Oriental region. The genera which I class in this family are the following:—

(⁹⁷⁸) Cinclus (9 sp.), Palæarctic region to West China and Formosa, Rocky Mountains, and Mexico in North America, and southward to the Andes of Peru; (⁹¹⁶) Enicurus (9 sp.), Himalayas to Java and West China; (⁹⁷⁹) Eupetes (4 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and New Guinea; (⁹⁷¹) Myiophonus (5 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Java, South China, and Formosa.

(⁹⁸¹) Mesites (1 sp.), Madagascar, is an anomalous bird placed with Eupetes by Mr. G. R. Gray, but of very uncertain affinities.

Family 6.—TROGLODYTIDÆ. (17 Genera, 94 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —	— — 3. 4	1 — — —

The Troglodytidæ, or Wrens, are small birds, rather abundant and varied in the Neotropical region, with a few species scattered through the Nearctic, Palæarctic, and parts of the Oriental regions, and one doubtful genus in Africa. The constitution of the family is by no means well determined. The South American genera are taken from Messrs. Sclater and Salvin's Nomenclator Avium Neotropicalium.

Tesia (2 sp.), Eastern Himalayas; Pnoepyga (6 sp.), Himalayas to East Thibet, Java; (^{716 and 723}) Troglodytes (15 sp.), Neotropical, Nearctic, and Palæarctic regions to the Higher Himalayas; (⁶⁹⁷) Rimator (1 sp.), Darjeeling; Thryothorus (13 sp.), South Brazil to Mexico, Martinique, and Nearctic region; Thryophilus (13 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and North-west America; Cistothorus (5 sp.), Patagonia to Greenland; Uropsila (1 sp.), Mexico; Donacobius (2 sp.), Tropical America; Campylorhynchus (18 sp.), Brazil, and Bolivia to Mexico and the Gila valley; Cyphorhinus (5 sp.), Equatorial South America to Costa Rica; Microcerculus (5 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Mexico; Henicorhina (2 sp.), Peru and Guiana to Costa Rica; Salpinctes (1 sp.), High Plains of Rocky Mountains; Catherpes (1 sp.), Mexico and Rio Grande; Cinnicerthia (2 sp.), Ecuador and Columbia. (⁷⁶⁰) Sylvietta (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa,—is placed in this family by Mr. Tristram.

Family 7.—CHAMÆIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species).

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	1 — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The bird which forms the genus Chamæa inhabits California; and though allied to the wrens it has certain peculiarities of structure which, in the opinion of many ornithologists, require that it should be placed in a distinct family.

Family 8.—CERTHIIDÆ. (6 Genera, 18 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — 3 —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —	1 — 3. 4	1.2 — —

The Certhiidæ, or Creepers, form a small family whose species are thinly scattered over North America from Mexico, the Palæarctic region, parts of the Oriental region, and Australia, where they are somewhat more abundant. The distribution of the genera is as follows:

Certhia (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, Nepal, and Sikhim; Salpornis (1 sp.), Central India; Tichodroma, (1 sp.), South Europe to Abyssinia, Nepal, and North China; Rhabdornis (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; Climacteris (8 sp.), Australia and New Guinea.

Family 9.—SITTIDÆ. (6 Genera, 31 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2 — 4

The Sittidæ, or Nuthatches, are another small family of tree-creeping birds, whose distribution is very similar to that of the Certhiidæ, but with a more uniform range over the Oriental region, and extending to New Zealand and Madagascar. The genera are as follows:—

Sitta (17 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic regions to South India and Mexico; Dendrophila (2 sp.), Ceylon and India to Burmah and Malaya; Hypherpes (1 sp.), Madagascar; Sittella (6 sp.), Australia and New Guinea. Acanthisitta (1 sp.) and Xenicus (4 sp.), New Zealand, are placed with some doubt in this family.

Family 10.—PARIDÆ. (14 Genera, 92 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — 3 —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —	1. 2. 3. 4	— 2 — 4

The Paridæ, or Tits, are very abundant in the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions; many fine species are found in the Himalayas, but they are sparingly scattered through the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions. The genera usually admitted into this family are the following, but the position of some of them, especially of the Australian forms, is doubtful.

(^{864—867 870}) Parus (46 sp.), North America, from Mexico, Palæarctic, and Oriental regions, Tropical and South Africa; (^{868 869}) Lophophanes (10 sp.), Europe, the Higher Himalayas to Sikhim, North America to Mexico; Acredula = Orites (6 sp.), Palæarctic region; Melanochlora (2 sp.), Nepal to Sumatra; Psaltria (1 sp.), Java; Psaltriparus (3 sp.), Guatemala to California, and Rocky Mountains; Auriparus (1 sp.), Rio Grande; (^{881 882}) Parisoma (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (^{883 884}) Ægithalus (6 sp.), South-east Europe to South Africa; (^{885 889}) Ægithaliscus (6 sp.), Afghanistan and Himalayas to Amoy; Cephalopyrus (1 sp.), North-west Himalayas; Sylviparus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Central India; Certhiparus (2 sp.), New Zealand; (^{879 880}) Sphenostoma (2 sp.), East and South Australia.

Family 11.—LIOTRICHIDÆ. (11 Genera, 35 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — 3. 4	— — — —

The Liotrichidæ, or Hill-Tits, are small, active, delicately-coloured birds, almost confined to the Himalayas and their extension eastward to China. They are now generally admitted to form a distinct family. The genera are distributed as follows:

(¹¹⁴⁶) Liothrix (3 sp.), Himalayas to China; Siva (3 sp.), Himalayas; Minla (4 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; Proparus (7 sp.), Nepal to East Thibet and Aracan; (¹¹⁵³) Pteruthius (6 sp.), Himalayas to Java and West China; (¹¹⁵⁵) Cutia (2 sp.), Nepal; (¹⁰¹⁹) Yuhina (3 sp.), High Himalayas and Moupin; (¹⁰²⁰) Ixulus (3 sp.), Himalayas to Tenasserim; (¹⁰²¹) Myzornis (1 sp.), Darjeeling.

Family 12.—PHYLLORNITHIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —

The Phyllornithidæ, or "Green Bulbuls," are a small group of fruit-eating birds, strictly confined to the Oriental region, and ranging over the whole of it, with the one exception of the Philippine Islands. The genera are:—

(¹⁰²²) Phyllornis (12 sp.), India to Java, Ceylon, and Hainan; (¹¹⁶⁶) Iora (4 sp.), the whole Oriental region; (¹¹⁶³) Erpornis (2 sp.), Borneo, Himalayas, Hainan, and Formosa.

Family 13.—PYCNONOTIDÆ. (9 Genera, 139 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— 2 — 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1 — — —

The Pycnonotidæ, Bulbuls, or fruit-thrushes, are highly characteristic of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound; less plentiful in the Ethiopian region, and extending to Palestine and Japan in the Palæarctic, and to the Moluccas in the Australian region, but absent from the intervening island of Celebes. The genera are:—

Microscelis (6 sp.), Burmah, the Indo-Malay Islands, and Japan; Pycnonotus (52 sp., in many sub-genera), Palestine to South Africa, the whole Oriental region, China and Japan; Alcurus (1 sp.), Himalayas; Hemixus (2 sp.), Nepal, Bootan, Hainan; Phyllastrephus (4 sp.), West and South Africa; Hypsipetes (20 sp.), the whole Oriental region, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands; Tylas (1 sp.), Madagascar; Criniger (30 sp.), the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines), West and South Africa, Moluccas; Ixonotus (7 sp.), West Africa; (^{1015 1017}) Setornis (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; Iole (4 sp.), Aracan and Malaya; Andropadus (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; (¹¹⁵⁷) Lioptilus (1 sp.), South Africa.

Family 14.—ORIOLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	1. 2 — 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2 — —

The Orioles, or Golden Thrushes, are a small group characteristic of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, migrating into the western Palæarctic region, and with some of the less typical forms in Australia. The genera are:—

Oriolus (24 sp.), Central Europe, throughout Africa, and the whole Oriental region, northward to Pekin, and eastward to Flores; (¹⁰⁷³) Analcipus (3 sp.), Himalayas, Formosa, Java and Borneo; Mimeta (9 sp.), the Moluccas and Australia; Sphecotheres (3 sp.), Timor and Australia. Artamia (1 sp.), Madagascar,—perhaps belongs to the next family or to Laniidæ.

Family 15.—CAMPEPHAGIDÆ (3 Genera, 100 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —

The Campephagidæ, or Cuckoo Shrikes, (Campephaginæ of the Hand List, with the addition of Cochoa) are most abundant in the Australian region (especially in the Austro-Malay sub-region), less so in the Oriental, and still less in the Ethiopian region. The genera, for the most part as adopted by Dr. Hartlaub, are as follows:—

Pericrocotus (22 sp.), the whole Oriental region, extending north to Pekin, and east to Lombok; (^1242—1244) Lanicterus (4 sp.), West and South Africa; (^{1245 1246}) Graucalus (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and eastward to Austro-Malaya, the New Hebrides, and Tasmania; Artamides (1 sp.), Celebes; Pteropodocys (1 sp.), Australia; (^{1248 1250 1257 1258}) Campephaga (16 sp.), Austro-Malaya, and New Caledonia, Philippines, the Ethiopian region; Volvocivora (8 sp.) the Oriental region (excluding Philippines); Lalage (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago to New Caledonia and Australia; Symmorphus (1 sp.), Australia; Oxynotus (2 sp.), Mauritius and Bourbon; (¹²⁰⁴) Cochoa (3 sp.), Himalayas, Java. The position of this last genus is doubtful. Jerdon puts it in the Liotrichidæ; Sundeval in the Sturnidæ; Bonaparte in the Dicruridæ; Professor Newton suggests the Pycnonotidæ; but it seems on the whole best placed here.

Family 16.—DICRURIDÆ. (6 Genera, 58 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2 — —

The Dicruridæ, or Drongo Shrikes (Dicruridæ of the Hand List, omitting the genus Melænornis), have nearly the same distribution as the last family, with which they are sometimes united. They are, however, most abundant and varied in the Oriental region, much less so both in the Australian and Ethiopian regions. The distribution of the genera is as follows:—

Dicrurus (46 sp., in several sub-genera), has the range of the whole family, extending east to New Ireland, and one species in Australia; Chætorhynchus (1 sp.), New Guinea; Bhringa (2 sp.), Himalayas to Borneo (Plate IX. vol. i. p. 339); Chibia (2 sp.), Himalayas eastward to North China; Chaptia (3 sp.), all India to Malacca and Formosa; Irena (4 sp.), Central India, Assam, and Burmah to Borneo and the Philippine Islands. This last genus is placed by Jerdon among the Pycnonotidæ, but seems to come most naturally here or in the last family.

Family 17.—MUSCICAPIDÆ. (44 Genera, 283 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4

The Muscicapidæ, or Flycatchers (Muscicapinæ and Myiagrinæ of the Hand List, omitting Cochoa and including Pogonocichla) form an extensive family of usually small-sized and often bright-coloured birds, very abundant in the warmer regions of the Old World and Australia, but becoming scarce as we approach the temperate and colder regions. They are wholly absent from North and South America. The genera, many of which are not well defined, are distributed as follows:—

Peltops (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; Monarcha (28 sp.), Moluccas to the Carolines and Marquesas Islands, Australia and Tasmania; Leucophantes (1 sp.), New Guinea; Butalis (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions, Moluccas and Formosa; Muscicapa (12 sp.), Europe and Africa; Muscicapula (6 sp.), India to Western China; Alseonax (1 sp.), South Africa; Erythrosterna (7 sp.), Europe to China and Java; Newtonia (1 sp.), Madagascar; Xanthopygia (2 sp.), Japan, China, Malacca; Hemipus (1 sp.), India and Ceylon; Pycnophrys (1 sp.), Java; Hyliota (2 sp.), West Africa; Erythrocercus (2 sp.), West Africa and Zambesi; Micræca (6 sp.), Australia, Timor, and Papuan Islands; Artomyias (2 sp.), West Africa; Pseudobias (1 sp.), Madagascar; Hemichelidon (3 sp.), the Oriental region and North China; Smithornis (2 sp.), West and South Africa; Megabias (1 sp.), West Africa; Cassinia (2 sp.), West Africa; Bias, (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; Niltava (3 sp.), Himalayas to West China; Cyornis (16 sp.), the whole Oriental region; Cyanoptila (1 sp.), Japan, China, Hainan; Eumyias (7 sp.), India to South China, Ceylon, and Sumatra; (^{1213 and 1216}) Siphia (8 sp.), North India, Formosa, Timor; Anthipes (1 sp.), Nepal; Seisura (5 sp.), Australia and Austro-Malaya (excluding Celebes); Myiagra (16 sp.), Australia and Moluccas to Caroline and Samoa Islands; Hypothymis (2 sp.), Oriental region and Celebes; Elminia (2 sp.), Tropical Africa; Muscitodus (2 sp.), Fiji Islands; Machærirhynchus (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia; Platystira (12 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Rhipidura (45 sp.), the Oriental and Australian regions to the Samoa Islands and Tasmania; Chelidorynx (1 sp.), North India; Myialestes (2 sp.), India to Ceylon, China, Java and Celebes; Tchitrea (26 sp.), the entire Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and to North China and Japan; Philentoma (4 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippine Islands; Todopsis (6 sp.), Papuan Islands; (⁸³⁶) Pogonocichla (1 sp.), South Africa; (^1061—1063) Bradyornis (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (¹⁴⁶⁰) Chasiempis (2 sp.), Sandwich Islands.

Family 18.—PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. (5 Genera, 62 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — 4	— — 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —

The Pachycephalidæ, or Thick-headed Shrikes (Pachycephalinæ of the Hand List omitting Colluricincla, Cracticus, and Pardalotus) are almost confined to the Australian region, a single species extending to Java and Aracan, and another (?) to Madagascar. The family has generally been united with the Laniidæ, but most modern ornithologists consider it to be distinct. The distribution of the genera is as follows:—

Oreœca (1 sp.), Australia; Falcunculus (2 sp.), Australia; Pachycephala (44 sp.), Sula Islands (east of Celebes) to the Fiji Islands, and Australia; Hylocharis (4 sp.), Timor, Celebes, Indo-Malaya, and Aracan; Calicalicus (1 sp.), Madagascar; Eopsaltria (14 sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides; Artamia (4 sp.), Madagascar,—may belong to this family, or to Laniidæ, Oriolidæ, or Artamidæ, according to different authors.

Family 19.—LANIIDÆ. (19 Genera, 145 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —

The Laniidæ, or Shrikes (Laniinæ and Malaconotinæ of the Hand List, and including Colluricincla), are most abundant and varied in Africa, less plentiful in the Oriental, Australian, and Palæarctic regions, with a few species in the Nearctic region as far as Mexico. The constitution of the family is, however, somewhat uncertain. The genera here admitted are:—

Colluricincla (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Rectes (18 sp.), Papuan Islands, North Australia, to Pelew and Fiji Islands; (^{1462—1464 1466 1470 1471—1473}) Lanius (50 sp.), the whole Nearctic, Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, one species reaching Timor, none in Madagascar; Laniellus (1 sp.), Java; Hypocolius (1 sp.), Abyssinia and Upper Nile; Corvinella (1 sp.), South and West Africa; Urolestes (1 sp.), South and East Africa; Tephrodornis (4 sp.), Oriental region to Hainan and Java; Hypodes (1 sp.), West Africa; Fraseria (2 sp.), West Africa; Cuphopterus (1 sp.), Princes' Island; Nilaus (1 sp.), South and West Africa; Prionops (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; Eurocephalus (2 sp.), North, East, and South Africa, and Abyssinia; Chaunonotus (1 sp.), West Africa; Vanga (4 sp.), Madagascar (Plate VI. vol. i. p. 278); Laniarius (36 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; Telephonus (10 sp.), all Africa and South Europe; Meristes (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Nicator (1 sp.), East Africa.

Family 20.—CORVIDÆ. (24 Genera, 190 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —

The Corvidæ, or Crows, Jays, &c., form an extensive and somewhat heterogeneous group, some members of which inhabit almost every part of the globe, although none of the genera are cosmopolitan. The true crows are found everywhere but in South America; the magpies, choughs, and nutcrackers are characteristic of the Palæarctic region; the jays are Palæarctic, Oriental, and American; while the piping crows are peculiarly Australian. The more detailed distribution of the genera is as follows:—

Sub-family I. Gymnorhininæ (Piping Crows).—Strepera (4 sp.), and Gymnorhina (3 sp.), are Australian only; Cracticus (9 sp.), ranges from New Guinea to Tasmania (this is usually put with the Shrikes, but it has more affinity with the preceding genera); Pityriasis (1 sp.), Borneo (an extraordinary bird of very doubtful affinities); Grallina (1 sp.), Australia, is put here by Sundevall,—among Motacillidæ, by Gould.

Sub-family II. Garrulinæ (Jays).—Platylophus = Lophocitta (4 sp.), Malaya; Garrulus (12 sp.), Palæarctic region, China and Himalayas; Perisoreus (2 sp.), North of Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; Cyanurus (22 sp.), American, from Bolivia to Canada, most abundant in Central America, but absent from the Antilles; Cyanocorax (15 sp.), La Plata to Mexico; Calocitta (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; Psilorhinus (3 sp.), Costa Rica to Texas; Urocissa (6 sp.), Western Himalayas to China and Formosa; Cissa (3 sp.), South-eastern Himalayas to Tenasserim, Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java.

Sub-family III. Dendrocittinæ (Tree Crows).—Temnurus (3 sp.), Cochin China, Malacca to Borneo (not Java); Dendrocitta (9 sp.), the Oriental region to Sumatra, Hainan, and Formosa; Crypsirhina (3 sp.), Pegu, Siam, and Java; Ptilostomus (2 sp.), West, East, and South Africa.

Sub-family IV. Corvinæ (Crows and Magpies).—Nucifraga (4 sp.), Palæarctic region to the Himalayas and North China; Picicorvus (1 sp.), the Rocky Mountains and California; Gymnokitta (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains and Arizona (Plate XVIII., Vol. II., p. 128); Pica (9 sp.), Palæarctic region, Arctic America, and California; Cyanopica (3 sp.), Spain, North-east Asia, Japan; Streptocitta (2 sp.), Celebes; Charitornis (1 sp.), Sula Islands; Corvus (55 sp.), universally distributed except South America and New Zealand, but found in Guatemala and the Antilles to Porto Rico; reaches the extreme north of Europe and Asia; Gymnocorvus (2 sp.), Papuan Islands; Picathartes (1 sp.), West Africa; Corvultur (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.

Sub-family V. Fregilinæ (Choughs).—Fregilus (3 sp.), mountains and cliffs of Palæarctic region from West Europe to the Himalayas and North China, Abyssinia (Plate I., Vol. I., p. 195); Corcorax (1 sp.), Australia.

Family 21.—PARADISEIDÆ. (19 Genera, 34 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	1. 2 — —

The Paradiseidæ, or "Birds of Paradise," form one of the most remarkable families of birds, unsurpassed alike for the singularity and the beauty of their plumage. Till recently the family was restricted to about eight species of the more typical Paradise birds, but in his splendid monograph of the group, Mr. Elliot has combined together a number of allied forms which had been doubtfully placed in several adjacent families. The various species of true Paradise birds, having ornamental plumes developed from different parts of the body, are almost wholly confined to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands, one species only being found in the Moluccas and one in North Australia; while the less typical Bower-birds, having no such developments of plumage, are most characteristic of the north and east of Australia, with a few species in New Guinea. The distribution of the genera according to Mr. Elliot's monograph is as follows:—

Sub-family I. Paradiseinæ.—Paradisea (4 sp.), Papuan Islands; Manucodia (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia; Astrapia (1 sp.), New Guinea; Parotia (1 sp.), New Guinea; Lophorhina (1 sp.), New Guinea; Diphyllodes (3 sp.), Papuan Islands; Xanthomelus (1 sp.), New Guinea; Cicinnurus (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; Paradigalla (1 sp.), New Guinea; Semioptera (1 sp.), Gilolo and Batchian.

Sub-family II. Epimachinæ.—Epimachus (1 sp.), New Guinea; Drepanornis (1 sp.), New Guinea; Seleucides (1 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X., Vol. I., p. 414); Ptilorhis (4 sp.), New Guinea and North Australia.

Sub-family III. Tectonarchinæ (Bower-birds).—Sericulus (1 sp.), Eastern Australia; Ptilonorhynchus (1 sp.), Eastern Australia; Chlamydodera (4 sp.), North and East Australia; Ælurædus (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and East Australia; Amblyornis (1 sp.), New Guinea.

Family 22.—MELIPHAGIDÆ. (23 Genera, 190 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4

(As in the Hand List, but omitting Zosterops, and slightly altering the arrangement.)

The extensive group of the Meliphagidæ, or Honey-suckers, is wholly Australian, for the genus Zosterops, which extends into the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, does not naturally belong to it. Several of the genera are confined to Australia, others to New Zealand, while a few range over the whole Australian region. The genera are distributed as follows:—

Myzomela (18 sp.), has the widest range, extending from Celebes to the Samoa Islands, and to Timor and Eastern Australia; Entomophila (4 sp.), Australia and New Guinea; Gliciphila (10 sp.), Australia, Timor, New Guinea, and New Caledonia; Acanthorhynchus (2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Meliphaga (1 sp.), Australia; Ptilotis (40 sp.), Gilolo and Lombok to Australia and Tasmania, and to the Samoa and Tonga Islands; Meliornis (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Prosthemadera (1 sp.), Pogonornis (1 sp.), New Zealand; Anthornis (4 sp.), New Zealand and Chatham Islands; Anthochæra (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Xanthotis (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and Australia; Leptornis (2 sp.), Samoa Islands and New Caledonia; Philemon = Tropidorhynchus (18 sp.), Moluccas and Lombok to New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania and New Caledonia; Entomiza (2 sp.), Australia; Manorhina (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Euthyrhynchus (3 sp.), New Guinea; Melirrhophetes (2 sp.), New Guinea; Melidectes (1 sp.), New Guinea; Melipotes (1 sp.), New Guinea; Melithreptus (8 sp.), New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania; (³⁹⁷) Moho (3 sp.), Sandwich Islands; Chætoptila (1 sp.), Sandwich Islands.

Family 23.—NECTARINIIDÆ. (11 Genera, 122 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— 2 — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2 — —

The Nectariniidæ, or Sun-birds, form a rather extensive group of insectivorous honey-suckers, often adorned with brilliant metallic plumage, and bearing a superficial resemblance to the American humming-birds, although not in any way related to them. They abound in the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, as far east as New Ireland, and south to Queensland, while one species inhabits the hot Jordan Valley in the Palæarctic region. For the Eastern genera I follow Lord Walden's classification (Ibis, 1870); the African species not having been so carefully studied are mostly placed in one genus. The genera adopted are as follows:—

Promerops (1 sp.), South Africa; Nectarinia (60 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; Cinnyricinclus (5 sp.), West Africa; Neodrepanis (1 sp.), Madagascar; Arachnechthra (13 sp.), Palestine, all India to Hainan, the Papuan Islands, and North-east Australia; Æthopyga (15 sp.), Himalayas and Central India to West China, Hainan, Java, and Northern Celebes; Nectarophila (5 sp.), Central India and Ceylon, Assam and Aracan to Java, Celebes and the Philippines; Chalcostetha (6 sp.), Malay Peninsula to New Guinea; Anthreptes (1 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula to Sula Islands, and Flores; Cosmeteira (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; Arachnothera (15 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines) Celebes, Lombok, and Papuan Islands.

Family 24.—DICÆIDÆ. (5 Genera, 107 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4

The Dicæidæ, or Flower-peckers, consist of very small, gaily-coloured birds, rather abundant over the whole Oriental and much of the Australian regions, and one genus extending over the Ethiopian region. The genera here adopted are the following:—

(⁶²²) Zosterops (68 sp.), the whole Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, as far east as the Fiji Islands, and north to Pekin and Japan; (^400—403) Dicæum (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, except China, with the Australian region as far as the Solomon Islands; (⁴⁰⁴) Pachyglossa (2 sp. ^{1437 1442}), Nepal and Northern Celebes; (⁴⁰⁵) Piprisoma (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and Timor; (¹⁴⁵⁰) Pardalotus (10 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (^407—409) Prionochilus (5 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and Papuan Islands.

Family 25.—DREPANIDIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — 3 —

The Drepanididæ are confined to the Sandwich Islands, and I follow Mr. Sclater's suggestion in bringing together the following genera to form this family:—

Drepanis (3 sp.); Hemignathus (3 sp.); Loxops (1 sp.); Psittirostra (1 sp.). If these are correctly associated, the great differences in the bill indicate that they are the remains of a larger and more varied family, once inhabiting more extensive land surfaces in the Pacific.

Family 26.—CŒREBIDÆ. (11 Genera, 55 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3. 4	— — 3 —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

(According to the arrangement of Messrs. Sclater and Salvin.)

The Cœrebidæ, or Sugar-birds, are delicate little birds allied to the preceding families, but with extensile honey-sucking tongues. They are almost wholly confined to the tropical parts of America, only one species of Certhiola ranging so far north as Florida. The following is the distribution of the genera:—

Diglossa (14 sp.), Peru and Bolivia to Guiana and Mexico; Diglossopis (1 sp.), Ecuador to Venezuela; Oreomanes (1 sp.), Ecuador; Conirostrum (6 sp.), Bolivia to Ecuador and Columbia; Hemidacnis (1 sp.), Upper Amazon and Columbia; Dacnis (13 sp.), Brazil to Ecuador and Costa Rica; Certhidea (2 sp.), Galapagos Islands; Chlorophanes (2 sp.), Brazil to Central America and Cuba; Cœreba (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; Certhiola (10 sp.), Amazon to Mexico, West Indies, and Florida; Glossiptila (1 sp.), Jamaica.

Family 27.—MNIOTILTIDÆ. (18 Genera, 115 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical, Baird and Allen for the Nearctic region.)

The Mniotiltidæ, or Wood-warblers, are an interesting group of small and elegant birds, allied to the preceding family and to the greenlets, and perhaps also to the warblers and tits of Europe. They range over all North America from Panama to the Arctic regions, but do not extend far beyond the tropic in Southern America. They are almost as abundant in the Nearctic as in the Neotropical region; and considering the favourable conditions of existence in Tropical America, this fact, in connection with their absence from the South Temperate zone would lead us to suppose that they originated in North Temperate America, and subsequently spread southward into the tropics. This supposition is strengthened by the fact that their metropolis, in the breeding season, is to the north of the United States. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are as follows:—

(⁹¹⁸) Siurus (4 sp.), Venezuela and West Indies to Eastern States and Canada; Mniotilta (1 sp.), Venezuela, Mexico, and Antilles to the Eastern States; Parula (5 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and the Eastern States, and Canada; Protonotaria (1 sp.), Antilles to Ohio; Helminthophaga (8 sp.), Columbia to Arctic America; Helmintherus (2 sp.), Central America to Eastern States; Perissoglossa (1 sp.), Antilles and Eastern States; Dendrœca (33 sp.), Amazon to Antilles, and Arctic America, and south to Chili; Oporornis (2 sp.), Guatemala to Eastern States; Geothlypis (11 sp.), all North America and Brazil; Myiodioctes (5 sp.), all North America and Columbia; Basileuterus (22 sp.), Bolivia and Brazil to Mexico; Setophaga (15 sp.), Brazil to Canada; Ergaticus (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; Cardellina (1 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; (¹⁴⁴⁰) Granatellus (3 sp.), Amazon to Mexico; (¹⁴⁴¹) Teretristis (2 sp.), Cuba; (¹⁴³⁹) Icteria (2 sp.), Costa Rica and United States to Canada.

Family 28.—VIREONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 63 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical genera; Professor Baird and Mr. Allen for those of the Nearctic region.)

The Vireonidæ, or Greenlets, are a family of small fly-catching birds wholly restricted to the American continent, where they range from Paraguay to Canada. They are allied to the Mniotiltidæ and perhaps also to the Australian Pachycephalidæ. Only two of the genera, with about a dozen species, inhabit the Nearctic region. The distribution of the genera is as follows:—

Vireosylvia (13 sp.), Venezuela to Mexico, the Antilles, the Eastern States and Canada; Vireo (14 sp.), Central America and the Antilles to Canada; Neochloe (1 sp.), Mexico; Hylophilus (20 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; Laletes (1 sp.), Jamaica; Vireolanius (5 sp.), Amazonia to Mexico; Cychloris (9 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico.

Family 29.—AMPELIDÆ. (4 Genera, 9 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Ampelidæ, represented in Europe by the waxwing, are a small family, characteristic of the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, but extending southward to Costa Rica and the West Indian islands. The genera are distributed as follows:—

(¹⁵³⁹) Ampelis (3 sp.), the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, and southward to Guatemala; (¹³⁶⁰) Ptilogonys (2 sp.), Central America; (¹⁴⁴²) Dulus (2 sp.), West Indian Islands; (¹³⁶¹) Phænopepla (1 sp.), Mexico and the Gila Valley.

Family 30.—HIRUNDINIDÆ. (9 Genera, 91 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4

The Hirundinidæ, or Swallows, are true cosmopolites. Although they do not range quite so far north (except as stragglers) as a few of the extreme polar birds, yet they pass beyond the Arctic Circle both in America and Europe, Cotyle riparia having been observed in the Parry Islands, while Hirundo rustica has been seen both in Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. Cotyle riparia and Chelidon urbica also breed in great numbers in northern Lapland, latitude 67° to 70° north. Many of the species also, have an enormous range, the common swallow (Hirundo rustica) inhabiting Europe, Asia and Africa, from Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope and to the Moluccas. The genera of swallows are not well determined, a number having been established of which the value is uncertain. I admit the following, referring by numbers to the Hand List:—

(^{215—221 226—228}) Hirundo (40 sp.), the range of the entire family; (^{222 223}) Psalidoprogne (10 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (²²⁴) Phedina (1 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands; (²²⁵) Petrochelidon (5 sp.), North and South America and Cape of Good Hope; (^{220—232 ?234}) Atticora (8 sp.), the Neotropical region and ? Australia; (^{235 237}) Cotyle (11 sp.), Europe, India, Africa, North America, Antilles and Ecuador; (²³⁶) Stelgidopteryx (5 sp.), La Plata to United States; (^{238 and 239}) Chelidon (6 sp.), Palæarctic region, Nepal, Borneo; (^240—242) Progne (5 sp.), all North and South America.

Family 31.—ICTERIDÆ. (24 Genera, 110 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Icteridæ, or American hang-nests, range over the whole continent, from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the Arctic Circle. Only about 20 species inhabit the Nearctic region, while, as usual with exclusively American families, the larger proportion of the genera and species are found in the tropical parts of South America. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are the following:—

Clypeicterus (1 sp.), Upper Amazon; Ocycalus (2 sp.), Upper Amazon to Mexico; Ostinops (8 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico; Cassiculus (1 sp.), Mexico; Cassicus (10 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to Costa Rica; Icterus (34 sp.), La Plata to the Antilles and United States; Dolichonyx (1 sp.), Paraguay to Canada; Molothrus (8 sp.), La Plata to Northern United States; Agelæus (7 sp.), La Plata and Chili to Northern United States; Xanthocephalus (1 sp.), Mexico to California and Canada; Xanthosomus (4 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela; Amblyrhamphus (1 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia; Gymnomystax (1 sp.), Amazonia and Guiana; Pseudoleistes (2 sp.), La Plata and Brazil; Leistes (3 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela; Sturnella (5 sp.), Patagonia and Falkland Islands to Middle United States; Curæus (1 sp.), Chili; Nesopsar (1 sp.), Jamaica; Scolecophagus (2 sp.), Mexico to Arctic Circle; Lampropsar (4 sp.), Amazonia and Ecuador to Mexico; Quiscalus (10 sp.), Venezuela and Columbia to South and Central United States; Hypopyrrhus (1 sp.), Columbia; Aphobus (1 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia; Cassidix (2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico and Cuba.

Family 32.—TANAGRIDÆ. (43 Genera, 304 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	— 2. 3 —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Tanagers are an extensive family of varied and beautiful fruit-eating birds, almost peculiar to the Neotropical region, only four species of a single genus (Pyranga) extending into the Eastern United States and Rocky Mountains. Southward they range to La Plata. They are especially abundant in the forest regions of South America east of the Andes, where no less than 40 out of the 43 genera occur; 23 of the genera are peculiar to this sub-region, while only 1 (Phlogothraupis) is peculiar to Central America and Mexico, and 2 (Spindalis and Phænicophilus) to the West Indian islands. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin with their distribution will be found at Vol. II., p. 99, in our account of Neotropical Zoology.

Family 33.—FRINGILLIDÆ. (74 Genera, 509 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —

The great family of the Fringillidæ, or finches, is in a very unsettled state as regards their division into genera, the most divergent views being held by ornithologists as to the constitution and affinities of many of the groups. All the Australian finch-like birds appear to belong to the Ploceidæ, so that the finches, as here constituted, are found in every region and sub-region, except the Australian region from which they are entirely absent—a peculiar distribution hardly to be found in any other family of birds.

Many European ornithologists separate the Emberizidæ, or buntings, as a distinct family, but as the American genera have not been so divided I am obliged to keep them together; but the genera usually classed as "buntings" are placed last, as a sub-family. In the following arrangement of the genera, I have done what I could to harmonize the views of the best modern writers. For convenience of reference the succession of the genera is that of the Hand List, and the numbers of the sub-genera are given whenever practicable:—

(^{1793 1795}) Fringilla (6 sp.), the whole Palæarctic region, including the Atlantic Islands; (¹⁷⁹⁴) Acanthis (3 sp.), Europe to Siberia, Persia, and North-West Himalayas; (¹⁷⁹⁶) Procarduelis (1 sp.), High Himalayas and East Thibet; (^1797—1803) Chrysomitris (18 sp.), Neotropical and Nearctic regions, Europe, and Siberia; (¹⁸⁰⁴) Metoponia (1 sp.), East Europe to North West Himalayas; (^{1805 and 1809}) Chlorospiza (9 sp.), Palæarctic region and Africa to the Cape of Good Hope; (^1806—1809) Dryospiza (14 sp.), South Europe, Palestine, Canaries, and all Africa; (¹⁸¹⁰) Sycalis (18 sp.), the whole Neotropical region; (^{1811—1813 1816—1819}) Pyrgita (34 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions, and all Africa; (¹⁸¹⁴) Montifringilla (4 sp.), Palæarctic region; (¹⁸¹⁵) Fringillauda (2 sp.), North-West Himalayas to East Thibet; (^1820—1822) Coccothraustes (6 sp.), Palæarctic region and Nepal, Nearctic region to Mexico; (¹⁸²³) Eophona (2 sp.), China and Japan; (¹⁸²⁴) Mycerobas (2 sp.), Central Asia to Persia, High Himalayas, and East Thibet; (¹⁸²⁵) Chaunoproctus (1 sp.), Bonin Islands, south-east of Japan, (probably Palæarctic); (¹⁸²⁶) Geospiza (7 sp.), Galapagos Islands; (¹⁸²⁷) Camarhynchus (5 sp.), Galapagos Islands; (¹⁸²⁸) Cactornis (4 sp.), Galapagos Islands; (^1830—1832) Phrygilus (10 sp.), Columbia to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands; (¹⁸³³) Xenospingus (1 sp.), Peru; (¹⁸³⁴) Diuca (3 sp.), Peru to Chili and Patagonia; (^{1835 and 1837}) Emberizoides (3 sp.), Venezuela to Paraguay; (¹⁸³⁶) Donacospiza (1 sp.), South Brazil and La Plata; (¹⁸³⁹) Chamæospiza (1 sp.), Mexico; (^{1838 and 1840}) Embernagra (9 sp.), Arizona to La Plata; (¹⁸⁴¹) Hæmophila (6 sp.), Mexico to Costa Rica; (¹⁸⁴²) Atlapetes (1 sp.), Mexico; (¹⁸⁴³) Pyrgisoma (5 sp.). Mexico to Costa Rica; (^{1844 and 1845}) Pipilo (12 sp.), all North America to Guatemala; (¹⁸⁴⁶) Junco (6 sp.), all the United States to Guatemala; (¹⁸⁴⁷) Zonotrichia (9 sp.), the whole Nearctic and Neotropical regions; (^{1848 1849}) Melospiza (7 sp.), Sitka and United States to Guatemala; (¹⁸⁵⁰) Spizella (7 sp.), Canada to Guatemala; (¹⁸⁵¹) Passerella (4 sp.), the Nearctic region and Northern Asia; (¹⁸⁵²) Passerculus (6 sp.), Nearctic region and to Guatemala; (¹⁸⁵³) Poœcetes (1 sp.), all United States and Mexico; (¹⁸⁵⁴) Ammodromus (4 sp.), all United States to Guatemala; (¹⁸⁵⁵) Coturniculus (6 sp.), north and east of North America to Jamaica and Bolivia; (¹⁸⁵⁶) Peucæa (6 sp.), South Atlantic States and California to Mexico; (¹⁸⁵⁷) Tiaris (1 sp.), Brazil; (¹⁸⁵⁸) Volatinia (1 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia; (¹⁸⁵⁹) Cyanospiza (5 sp.), Canada to Guatemala; (^{1860 1861}) Paroaria (6 sp.), Tropical South America, east of the Andes; (¹⁸⁶²) Coryphospingus (4 sp.), Tropical South America; (¹⁸⁶³) Haplospiza (2 sp.), Mexico and Brazil; (^{1864 1891}) Phonipara (8 sp.), Mexico to Columbia, the greater Antilles; (¹⁸⁶⁵) Poospiza (13 sp.), California and South Central States to Bolivia and La Plata; (⁴²⁴) Spodiornis (1 sp.), Andes of Quito; (^{1866 1867}) Pyrrhula (9 sp.), the whole Palæarctic region to the Azores and High Himalayas; (¹⁸⁶⁸) Crithagra (17 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Mauritius, Syria; (¹⁸⁶⁹) Ligurnus (2 sp.), West Africa; (^{1870 1871}) Carpodacus (18 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions to Mexico and Central India; (^1872—1874) Erythrospiza (6 sp.), Southern parts of Palæarctic region; (¹⁸⁷⁵) Uragus (2 sp.), Siberia and Japan; (¹⁸⁷⁶) Cardinalis (2 sp.), South and Central States to Venezuela; (¹⁸⁷⁷) Pyrrhuloxia (1 sp.), Texas and Rio Grande; (^{1878 1879}) Guiraca (6 sp.), Southern United States to La Plata; (¹⁸⁸⁰) Amaurospiza (2 sp.), Costa Rica and Brazil; (¹⁸⁸¹) Hedymeles (2 sp.), all United States to Columbia; (¹⁸⁸²) Pheucticus (5 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia; (¹⁸⁸³) Oryzoborus (6 sp.), Mexico to Ecuador and South Brazil; (¹⁸⁸⁴) Melopyrrha (1 sp.), Cuba; (¹⁸⁸⁵) Loxigilla (4 sp.), Antilles; (^{1886 1887}) Spermophila (44 sp.), Texas to Bolivia and Uruguay; (¹⁸⁸⁸) Catamenia (4 sp.), Columbia to Bolivia; (¹⁸⁸⁹) Neorhynchus (3 sp.), West Peru; (¹⁸⁹²) Catamblyrhynchus (1 sp.), Columbia; (¹⁸⁹³) Loxia (7 sp.), Europe to North-west India and Japan, Arctic America to Pennsylvania, Mexico; (¹⁸⁹⁴) Pinicola (3 sp.), Arctic America, North-east Europe to the Amoor, Camaroons Mountains West Africa; (¹⁸⁹⁵) Propyrrhula (1 sp.), Darjeeling in the winter,? Thibet; (¹⁸⁹⁶) Pyrrhospiza (1 sp.), Snowy Himalayas; (¹⁸⁹⁷) Hæmatospiza (1 sp.), South-east Himalayas, 5,000-10,000 feet; (^{1898 1899}) Linota (12 sp.), Europe to Central Asia, north and east of North America; (¹⁹⁰⁰) Leucosticte (7 sp.), Siberia and Thibet to Kamschatka, and from Alaska to Utah.

Sub-family Emberizinæ.—(¹⁹⁹⁵) Calamospiza (1 sp.), Arizona and Texas to Mexico; (¹⁹⁰⁶) Chondestes (2 sp.), Western, Central, and Southern States to Mexico and Nicaragua; (^1907—1910) Euspiza (9 sp.), Palæarctic region, India, Burmah, and South China, South-east United States to Columbia; (^1911—1920) Emberiza (28 sp.), the whole Palæarctic region (continental), to Central India in winter; (¹⁹²¹) Gubernatrix (1 sp.), Paraguay and La Plata, (according to Messrs. Sclater and Salvin this comes next to Pipilo); (¹⁹²²) Fringillaria (8 sp.), Africa and South Europe; (^1923—1925) Plectrophanes (6 sp.), Arctic Zone to Northern Europe and North China, Arctic America, and east side of Rocky Mountains; (¹⁹²⁶) Centronyx (1 sp.), Mouth of Yellowstone River.

Family 34.—PLOCEIDÆ. (29 Genera, 252 species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —

The Ploceidæ, or Weaver-finches, are especially characteristic of the Ethiopian region, where most of the genera and nearly four-fifths of the species are found; the remainder being pretty equally divided between the Oriental and Australian regions. Like the true finches these have never been properly studied, and it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain what genera are natural and how far those of Australia and Africa are distinct. The following enumeration must therefore be taken as altogether tentative and provisional. When the genera adopted differ from those of the Hand List they will be referred to by numbers.

Textor (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (^{1650—1654 1657}) Hyphantornis (32 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (^{1655 1656}) Symplectes (8 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Malimbus (9 sp.), West Africa; (^{1659 1661}) Ploceus (6 sp.), West and East Africa, the Oriental region (excluding Philippines); (¹⁶⁶⁰) Nelicurvius (1 sp.), Madagascar; Foudia (12 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, Tropical Africa; (^{1663 1664}) Sporopipes (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (^1665—1667) Pyromelana (14 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Abyssinia to 10,500 feet; Philetærus (1 sp.), South Africa; Nigrita (7 sp.), West Africa to Upper Nile; Plocepasser (4 sp.), East and South Africa; (^1672—1674) Vidua (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa (Plate V., Vol. I., p. 264); (^1675—1677) Coliuspasser (9 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Chera (1 sp.), South Africa; Spermospiza (2 sp.), West Africa; Pyrenestes (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (^{1682—1687 1689 1692 1693 1698}) Estrilda (26 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, India, Burmah, and Java to Australia; (^{1688 1690 1691 1695 1696}) Pytelia (24 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (¹⁶⁹⁴) Hypargos (2 sp.), Mozambique and Madagascar; (¹⁶⁹⁷) Emblema (1 sp.), North-west Australia (^{1699 1712—1717}) Amadina (15 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Moluccas to Australia and the Samoa Islands; (^{1700 1701 1710}) Spermestes (8 sp.), Tropical Africa and Madagascar; (¹⁷⁰²) Amauresthes (1 sp.), East and West Africa; (^{1703 1707—1709 1711}) Munia (30 sp.), Oriental region to Timor and New Guinea; (¹⁷⁰⁴) Donacola (3 sp.), Australia; (^{1705 1706}) Poephila (6 sp.), Australia; (^1718—1721) Erythrura (7 sp.), Sumatra to Java, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, and Fiji Islands; (¹⁷²²) Hypochera (3 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.

Family 35.—STURNIDÆ. (29 Genera, 124 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1 — 3. 4

The Sturnidæ or Starlings, are a highly characteristic Old-World group, extending to every part of the great Eastern continent and its islands, and over the Pacific Ocean to the Samoa Islands and New Zealand, yet wholly absent from the mainland of Australia. The family appears to be tolerably well-defined, and the following genera are generally considered to belong to it: (^{1558 1559 1562}) Eulabes (13 sp.), the Oriental region to South-west China, Hainan, and Java,—and Flores, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands in the Australian region; Ampeliceps (1 sp.), Tenasserim, Burmah, and Cochin China; Gymnops (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; Basilornis (2 sp.), Celebes and Ceram; Pastor (1 sp.), South-east Europe to India, Ceylon, and Burmah; Acridotheres (7 sp.), the whole Oriental region and Celebes; (^{1568 1569}) Sturnia (12 sp.), the whole Oriental region, North China, Japan, and Siberia, Celebes; Dilophus (1 sp.), South Africa; Sturnus (6 sp.), Palæarctic region, to India and South China in winter; Sturnopastor (4 sp.), India to Burmah and East Java; Creadion (2 sp.), New Zealand; Heterolocha (1 sp.), New Zealand; (¹⁵²⁰) Callæas (2 sp.), New Zealand; Buphaga (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Euryceros (1 sp.), Madagascar (see Plate VI., Vol. I., p. 278.) This genus and the last should perhaps form distinct families. (¹⁵⁷⁷) Juida (5 sp.), Central, West, and South Africa; (¹⁵⁷⁸) Lamprocolius (20 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Cinnyricinclus (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Onychognathus (2 sp.), West Africa; (¹⁵⁸¹) Spreo (4 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (^1582—1585) Amydrus (7 sp.), South and East Africa, Palestine; Aplonis (9 sp.), New Caledonia to the Tonga Islands; (^1587—1589) Calornis (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago and eastward to the Ladrone and Samoa Islands; (¹⁵⁹⁰) Enodes (1 sp.), Celebes; Scissirostrum (1 sp.), Celebes; (¹⁵⁹²) Saroglossa (1 sp.), Himalayas; (¹⁵⁹³) Hartlaubius (1 sp), Madagascar; Fregilupus (1 sp.), Bourbon, but it has recently become extinct; (³⁶³) Falculia (1 sp)., Madagascar.

Family 36.—ARTAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 17 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —?	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3 —

The Artamidæ, or Swallow-shrikes, are a curious group of birds, ranging over the greater part of the Oriental and Australian regions as far east as the Fiji Islands and south to Tasmania. Only a single species inhabits India, and they are more plentiful in Australia than in any other locality. The only well-marked genus is Artamus.

There are a few Madagascar birds belonging to the genus Artamia, which some ornithologists place in this family, others with the Laniidæ, but which are here classed with the Oriolidæ.

Family 37.—ALAUDIDÆ. (15 Genera, 110 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3 —	— 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2 — —

The Alaudidæ, or Larks, may be considered as exclusively belonging to the great Eastern continent, since the Nearctic, Neotropical, and Australian regions have each only a single species. They abound most in the open plains and deserts of Africa and Asia, and are especially numerous in South Africa. The genera, including those recently established by Mr. Sharpe, are as follows:—

Otocorys (8 sp.); the Palæarctic region, North America and south to the Andes of Columbia, North India; (^{1928 1929}) Alauda (17 sp.), Palæarctic region, all Africa, the Peninsula of India, and Ceylon; (¹⁹³¹) Galerita (10 sp.), Central Europe to Senegal and Abyssinia, Persia, India and North China; (¹⁹³²) Calendula (2 sp.), Abyssinia and South Africa; (^{1933 1934}) Calandrella (6 sp.), Europe, North Africa, India, Burmah, North China, and Mongolia; (^1935—1937) Melanocorypha (7 sp.), South Europe to Tartary, Abyssinia, and North-west India; Pallasia (^{sp. 7781}), East Asia; (¹⁹³⁸) Certhilauda (4 sp.), South Europe, South Africa; Heterocorys (^{sp. 7792}) South Africa; (¹⁹³⁹) Alæmon (3 sp.), South-east Europe to Western India, and South Africa; (¹⁹⁴⁰) Mirafra (25 sp.), the Oriental and Ethiopian regions to Australia; (1941) Ammomanes (10 sp.), South Europe to Palestine and Central India, and to Cape Verd Islands and South Africa; (^{1942 1943}) Megalophonus (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Tephrocorys (1 sp.), South Africa; Pyrrhulauda (9 sp.), all Africa, Canary Islands, India and Ceylon.

Family 38.—MOTACILLIDÆ. (9 Genera, 80 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. — 4

The Motacillidæ, or Wagtails and Pipits, are universally distributed, but are most abundant in the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to which the true wagtails are almost confined. The following genera are usually adopted, but some of them are not very well defined:—

Motacilla (15 sp.), ranges over the greater part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and to Alaska in North-west America; Budytes (10 sp.), Europe, Africa, Asia to Philippines, Moluccas, Timor, and North Australia; Calobates (3 sp.), South Palæarctic and Oriental regions to Java; Nemoricola (1 sp.), Oriental region; Anthus (30 sp.), all the great continents; Neocorys (1 sp.), Central North America; Corydalla (14 sp.), South Europe to India, China, the Malay Islands, Australia, New Zealand and the Auckland Islands: Macronyx (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Heterura (1 sp.), Himalayas.

Family 39.—TYRANNIDÆ. (71 Genera, 329 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2. 3. 4	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Tyrannidæ, or Tyrant Shrikes, form one of the most extensive and truly characteristic American families of birds; as they extend over the whole continent from Patagonia to the Arctic regions, and are found also in all the chief American islands—the Antilles, the Galapagos, the Falkland Islands, and Juan Fernandez. As the genera are all enumerated in the table, at p. 101 of this volume, I shall here confine myself to the distribution of the sub-families, only referring to such genera as are of special geographical interest.

Sub-family I. Conophaginæ (2 genera, 13 species). Confined to tropical South America, from Brazil and Bolivia to Guiana and Columbia.

Sub-family II. Tæniopterinæ (19 genera, 76 species). This group ranges from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the northern United States; yet it is almost wholly South American, only 2 genera and 4 species passing north of Panama, and none inhabiting the West Indian islands. Empidias has 3 species in North America, while Tænioptera, Cnipolegus, Muscisaxicola, and Centrites, range south to Patagonia.

Sub-family III. Platyrhynichinæ (16 genera, 60 species). This sub-family is wholly Neotropical and mostly South American, only 7 of the genera passing Panama and but 3 reaching Mexico, while there are none in the West Indian islands. Only 3 genera extend south to the temperate sub-region, and one of these, Anæretes, has a species in Juan Fernandez.

Sub-family IV. Elaineinæ (17 genera, 91 species). This sub-family is more exclusively tropical, only two genera extending south as far as Chili and La Plata, while none enter the Nearctic region. No less than 10 of the genera pass north of Panama, and one of these, Elainea, which ranges from Chili to Costa Rica has several species in the West Indian islands. About one fourth of the species of this sub-family are found north of Panama.

Sub-family V. Tyranninæ (17 genera, 89 species). This sub-family is that which is best represented in the Nearctic region, where 6 genera and 24 species occur. Milvulus reaches Texas; Tyrannus and Myiarchus range over all the United States; Sayornis, the Eastern States and California; Contopus extends to Canada; Empidonax ranges all over North America; and Pyrocephalus reaches the Gila Valley as well as the Galapagos Islands. No less than 5 genera of this sub-family occur in the West Indian islands.

Family 39a.—OXYRHAMPHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3 —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The genus Oxyrhamphus (2 sp.) which ranges from Brazil to Costa Rica, has usually been placed in the Dendrocolaptidæ; but Messrs Sclater and Salvin consider it to be the type of a distinct family group, most allied to the Tyrannidæ.

Family 40.—PIPRIDÆ. (15 Genera, 60 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3 —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Pipridæ, or Manakins, have generally been associated with the next family, and they have a very similar distribution. The great majority of the genera and species are found in the equatorial regions of South America, only 9 species belonging to 5 genera ranging north of Panama, while 2 or 3 species extend to the southern limit of the tropical forests in Paraguay and Brazil. The genera which go north of Panama are Piprites, Pipra, Chiroxiphia, Chiromachæris, and Heteropelma. Pipra is the largest genus, containing 19 species, and having representatives throughout the whole range of the family. As in all the more extensive families peculiar to the Neotropical region, the distribution of the genera will be found in the tables appended to the chapter on the Neotropical region in the Third Part of this work. (Vol. II. p. 103).

Family 41.—COTINGIDÆ. (28 Genera, 93 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3. 4	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Cotingidæ, or Chatterers, comprise some of the most beautiful and some of the most remarkable of American birds, for such we must consider the azure and purple Cotingas, the wine-coloured white-winged Pompadour, the snowy carunculated Bell-birds, the orange-coloured Cocks-of-the-Rock, and the marvellously-plumed Umbrella-birds, (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28). The Cotingidæ are also one of the most pre-eminently Neotropical of all the Neotropical families, the great mass of the genera and species being concentrated in and around the vast equatorial forest region of the Amazon. Only 13 species extend north of Panama, one to the Antilles, and not more than 20 are found to the south of the Amazon Valley. Messrs. Sclater and Salvin divide the family into six sub-families, the distribution of which will be briefly indicated.

Sub-family I. Tityrinæ (3 genera, 22 species). Ranges from Brazil to Mexico, one species of Hadrostomus inhabiting Jamaica.

Sub-family II. Lipauginæ (4 genera, 14 species) also ranges from Brazil to Mexico; one genus (Ptilochloris) is confined to Brazil.

Sub-family III. Attalinæ (2 genera, 10 species). Ranges from Paraguay to Costa Rica; one genus (Casiornis) is confined to South Brazil and Paraguay.

Sub-family IV. Rupicolinæ (2 genera, 5 species). This sub-family is restricted to the Amazonian region and Guiana, with one species extending along the Andean valleys to Bolivia. The genera are Rupicola (3 species) and Phænicocercus (2 species).

Sub-family V. Cotinginæ (10 genera, 28 species). Ranges from Southern Brazil and Bolivia to Nicaragua; only two species (belonging to the genera Carpodectes and Cotinga) are found north of Panama, and there are none in the West Indian islands. The great majority of these, the true Chatterers, are from the regions about the Equator.

Sub-family VI. Gymnoderinæ (7 genera, 14 species). Ranges from Brazil to Costa Rica; two species, of the genera Chasmorhynchus and Cephalopterus, are found north of Panama, while there are none in the West Indian islands. Only 2 species are found south of the Amazon valley.

Family 42.—PHYTOTOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1 — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Phytotomidæ, or Plant-cutters, are singular thick-billed birds, strictly confined to the temperate regions of South America. The single genus, Phytotoma, is found in Chili, La Plata, and Bolivia. Their affinities are uncertain, but they are believed to be allied to the series of families with which they are here associated. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 128).

Family 43.—EURYLÆMIDÆ. (6 Genera, 9 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — 3. 4	— — — —

The Eurylæmidæ, or Broad-bills, form a very small family of birds, often adorned with striking colours, and which have their nearest allies in the South American Cotingidæ. They have a very limited distribution, from the lower slopes of the Himalayas through Burmah and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. They are evidently the remains of a once extensive group, and from the small number of specific forms remaining, seem to be on the road to extinction. Thus we may understand their isolated geographical position. The following are the names and distribution of the genera:—

Eurylæmus (2 species), Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo; Corydon (1 species), Malacca, Sumatra and Borneo (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339); Psarisomus (1 species), Himalayas to Burmah, up to 6,000 feet; Serilophus (2 species), Nepal to Tenasserim; Cymbirhynchus (2 species), Siam to Sumatra and Borneo; Calyptomena (1 species), Penang to Sumatra and Borneo.

Family 44.—DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ. (43 Genera, 217 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2. 3 —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Dendrocolaptidæ, or American Creepers, are curious brown-coloured birds with more or less rigid tail feathers, strictly confined to the continental Neotropical region, and very numerous in its south-temperate extremity. They are divided by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin into five sub-families, to which I shall confine my remarks on their distribution. The details of the numerous genera, being only interesting to specialists, will be given in the table of genera of the Neotropical region. No less than 13 of the genera are confined to South-Temperate America and the High Andes; 14 are restricted to Tropical South America, while not one is peculiar to Tropical North America, and only 15 of the 43 genera extend into that sub-region, showing that this is one of the pre-eminently South American groups.

Sub-family I. Furnariinæ (8 genera, 30 species). Ranges over all South America, 4 genera and 18 species being restricted to the temperate sub-region; one species is found in the Falkland Islands.

Sub-family II. Sclerurinæ (1 genus, 6 species). Brazil to Guiana, Columbia, and north to Mexico.

Sub-family III. Synallaxinæ (12 genera, 78 species). Ranges from Patagonia to Mexico; 7 genera and 28 species are confined to the temperate sub-region; species occur in the islands of Mas-a-fuera, Trinidad, and Tobago.

Sub-family IV. Philydorinæ (6 genera, 35 species). Confined to Tropical America from Brazil to Mexico; 4 genera and 8 species occur in Tropical North America.

Sub-family V. Dendrocolaptinæ (14 genera, 59 species). Ranges from Chili and La Plata to Mexico; only 3 species occur in the South Temperate sub-region, while 9 of the genera extend into Tropical North America. Two of the continental species occur in the island of Tobago, which, together with Trinidad, forms part of the South American rather than of the true Antillean sub-region.

Family 45.—FORMICARIIDÆ. (32 Genera, 211 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— 2. 3 —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Formicariidæ, comprising the Bush-Shrikes and Ant-thrushes, form one of the most exclusively Neotropical families; and the numerous species are rigidly confined to the warm and wooded districts, only a single species extending to La Plata, and none to the Antilles or to the Nearctic region. Less than 30 species are found north of Panama. Messrs. Sclater and Salvin divide the group into three sub-families, whose distribution may be conveniently treated, as in the Dendrocolaptidæ, without enumerating the genera.

Sub-family I. Thamnophilinæ.—(10 genera, 70 species.) One species of Thamnophilus inhabits La Plata; only 3 genera and 12 species are found north of Panama, the species of this sub-family being especially abundant in the Equatorial forest districts.

Sub-family II. Formicivorinæ.—(14 genera, 95 species.) Only 8 species occur north of Panama, and less than one-third of the species belong to the districts south of the Equator.

Sub-family III. Formicariinæ.—(8 genera, 46 species.) About 12 species occur north of Panama, and only 5 south of the Equatorial district.

It appears, therefore, that this extensive family is especially characteristic of that part of South America from the Amazon valley northwards.

Family 46.—PTEROPTOCHIDÆ. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
1. 2 — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —

The Pteroptochidæ are a group of curious Wren-like birds, almost confined to the temperate regions of South America, extending along the Andes beyond the Equator, and with a few species in South-east Brazil, and one in the valley of the Madeira. The genera are as follows:—

Scytalopus (8 sp.), Chili and West Patagonia to the Andes of Columbia; Merulaxis (1 sp.), South-east Brazil; Rhinocrypta (2 sp.), Northern Patagonia and La Plata; Lioscelis (1 sp.), Madeira valley; Pteroptochus (2 sp.), Chili; Hylactes (3 sp.), Western Patagonia and Chili; Acropternis (1 sp.), Andes of Ecuador and Columbia; Triptorhinus (1 sp.), Chili.

Family 47.—PITTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 40 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — 4	— 2 — —	1. 2. 3. 4	1. 2 — —

The Pittas comprise a number of beautifully-coloured Thrush-like birds, which, although confined to the Old World, are more nearly allied to the South American Pteroptochidæ than to any other family. They are most abundant in the Malay Archipelago, between the Oriental and Australian divisions of which they are pretty equally divided. They seem, however, to attain their maximum of beauty and variety in the large islands of Borneo and Sumatra; from whence they diminish in numbers in every direction till we find single species only in North China, West Africa, and Australia, The genera here adopted are the following:—

(^{1087 1088 1090 1092 1093}) Pitta (33 sp.), has the range of the family; (¹⁰⁸⁹) Hydrornis (3 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya; Eucichla (3 sp.), Malaya; Melampitta (1 sp.), recently discovered in New Guinea.

Family 48.—PAICTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — 4	— — — —	— — — —

This family was established by Professor Sundevall, for an anomalous bird of Madagascar, which he believes to have some affinity for the American Formicariidæ, but which perhaps comes best near the Pittas. The only genus is Philepitta, containing two species.

Family 49.—MENURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— 2 — —

The Menuridæ, or Lyre Birds, remarkable for the extreme elegance of the lyre-shaped tail in the species first discovered, are birds of a very anomalous structure, and have no near affinity to any other family. Two species of Menura are known, confined to South and East Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441).

Family 50.—ATRICHIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

General Distribution.
Neotropical Sub-regions.	Nearctic Sub-regions.	Palæarctic Sub-regions.	Ethiopian Sub-regions.	Oriental Sub-regions.	Australian Sub-regions.
— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— — — —	— 2 — —

The genus Atrichia, or Scrub-birds of Australia, have been formed into a separate family by Professor Newton, on account of peculiarities in the skeleton which separate them from all other Passeres. Only two species are known, inhabiting East and West Australia respectively. They are very noisy, brown-coloured birds, and have been usually classed with the warblers, near Amytis and other Australian species.

General remarks on the distribution of the Passeres.

The order Passeres, is the most extensive among birds, comprehending about 5,700 species grouped in 870 genera, and 51 families. The distribution of the genera, and of the families considered individually, has been already sufficiently given, and we now have to consider the peculiarities of distribution of the families collectively, and in their relations to each other, as representing well-marked types of bird-structure. The first thing to be noted is, how very few of these families are truly cosmopolitan; for although there are seven which are found in each of the great regions, yet few of these are widely distributed throughout all the regions, and we can only find three that inhabit every sub-region, and are distributed with tolerable uniformity; these are the Hirundinidæ, or swallows, the Motacillidæ or wagtails and pipits, and the Corvidæ or crows,—but the latter is a family of so heterogeneous a nature, that it possibly contains the materials of several natural families, and if so divided, the parts would probably all cease to be cosmopolitan. The Sylviidæ, the Turdidæ, and the Paridæ, are the only other families that approach universality of distribution, and all these are wanting in one or more sub-regions. If, now, we divide the globe into the New and the Old World, the former including the whole American continent, the latter all the rest of the earth, we find that the Old World possesses exclusively 23 families, the New World exclusively 14, of which 5 are common to North and South America. But if we take the division proposed by Professor Huxley—a northern world, comprising our first four regions (from Nearctic to Oriental), and a southern world comprising our last two regions (the Australian and Neotropical)—we find that the northern division possesses only 5 families exclusively, and the southern division 13 exclusively, of which not one is common to Australia and South America. This plainly indicates that, as far as the Passeres are concerned, the latter bipartite division is not so natural as the former. Again, if we compare temperate with tropical families (not too rigidly, but as regards their general character), we find in the northern hemisphere only two families that have the character of being typically temperate—the Cinclidæ, and in a less degree the Ampelidæ—both of small extent. In the southern hemisphere we have also two, the Phytotomidæ, and in a less degree, the Pteroptochidæ; making two wholly and two mainly temperate families. Of exclusively tropical families on the other hand, we have about 12, and several others that are mainly tropical.

The several regions do not differ greatly in the number of families found in each. The Nearctic has 19, the Palæarctic 21, the Ethiopian 23, the Oriental 28, the Australian 29, and the Neotropical 23. But many of these families are only represented by a few species, or in limited districts; and if we count only those families which are tolerably well represented, and help to form the ornithological character of the region, the richness of the several tropical regions will appear to be (as it really is) comparatively much greater. The families that are confined to single regions are not very numerous, except in the case of the Neotropical region, which has 5. The Australian has only 3, the Oriental 1, the Ethiopian 1, and the other regions have no peculiar families.

The distribution of the Passeres may be advantageously considered as divided into the five series of Turdoid, Tanagroid, Sturnoid, Formicarioid, and Anomalous Passeres. The Turdoid Passeres, consisting of the first 23 families, are especially characteristic of the Old World, none being found exclusively in America, and only two or three being at all abundant there. The Tanagroid Passeres (Families 24-33) are very characteristic of the New World, five being confined to it, and three others being quite as abundant there as in the Old World; while there is not a single exclusively Old World family in the series, except the Drepanididæ confined to the Sandwich Islands. The Sturnoid Passeres (Families 34-38) are all exclusively Old World, except that two larks inhabit parts of North America, and a few pipits South America. The Formicarioid Passeres (Families 39-48) are strikingly characteristic of the New World, to which seven of the families exclusively belong; the two Old World groups being small, and with a very restricted distribution. The Anomalous Passeres (Families 49-50) are confined to Australia.

The most remarkable feature in the geographical distribution of the Passeres is the richness of the American continent, and the large development of characteristic types that occurs there. The fact that America possesses 14 altogether peculiar families, while no less than 23 Old-World families are entirely absent from it, plainly indicates, that, if this division does not represent the most ancient and radical separation of the land surface of the globe, it must still be one of very great antiquity, and have modified in a very marked way the distribution of all living things. Not less remarkable is the richness in specific forms of the 13 peculiar American families. These contain no less than 1,570 species, leaving only about 500 American species in the 13 other Passerine families represented in the New World. If we make a deduction for those Nearctic species which occur only north of Panama, we may estimate the truly Neotropical species of Passerine birds at 1,900, which is almost exactly one-third of the total number of Passeres; a wonderful illustration of the Ornithological riches of South America.

---

1. The species of the genera Phylloscopus and Hypolais are so mixed up in the Hand List, that Mr. Tristram has furnished me with the following enumeration of the species which in his view properly belong to them, by the numbers in that work:—

   Phylloscopus.	Hypolais.
   3032	3026
   3033	3028
   3048 = 3038	3029
   3039	3054 = 3031 = 3036
   3063 = 3047 = 3054 = 3061	3042
   3048	3043
   3049	3045
   3050	3062 = 3047
   3051	3046 = 2932
   3052	3035
   3053	2976
   3056 = 3081
   3057
   3059
   3060

2. The term "Malaya" is used here to include the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, a district to which many species and genera are confined. "Malay Archipelago" will be used to include both Indo-Malaya and Austro-Malaya.