The Handbook of Palestine/Part 6
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PART VI.
GEOLOGY, MINING AND NATURAL HISTORY.
§ I. Geology.^
Succession of Rocks. — The succession of rocks in descend - . ing order hitherto recognized in Palestine is as follows : V. Quaternary : Post-Glacial and Pleistocene; IV. Cainozoic : Pliocene, probably Miocene, Eocene;
{Upper : Senonian, Tiir- onian, Cenomanian; Lower; (i) Jurassic; II. Palaeozoic : Cambrian probably (Hull considered it Carboniferous); I. Pre-Cambrian.
I. Pre-Cambrian Rocks : These oldest rocks are found in the east side of the Ghor, from the Lisan Peninsula, near the south end of the Dead Sea, southward.
They consist of crystalline schists, gneiss and granite. Grey granite may be seen forming a dark rugged foothill in the east wall of the Ghor just north of Wadi Hesi at the south end of the Dead Sea.
The above rocks are cut by red and pink granite and- felsites. In addition to the felsite, which is an old volcanic rock, there are occasional masses of volcanic agglomerate,
- This section is based on the sketch of the geology of Palestine by Major R. W.
Brock, R.E., in vol. iii. of the Palestine Pocket Guide Books.
229
230 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
containing, besides blocks of felsite, some of granite. Such a mass occurs at the base of Jebel Labrush near al-Salieh.
These ancient rocks formed the floor of an old continent that suffered heavy erosion before being submerged in a later pre-Cambrian and Cambrian sea. As its waters en- croached on the old land, boulders accumulated on the shore, over which, as the waters deepened, sands were deposited. This has given rise to the formation of con- glomerate and sandstone, which may be seen on Wadi Hesi. Shoulders of rock protruding through the terrace deposits, that join the Lisan peninsula to the east, are also of con- glomerate.
II, Cambrian : As depth increased, beds of lime car- bonate, the remains of the animal life of the sea, were laid down; and these have been preserved as a dark dolomite which overlies the sandstone of Wadi Hesi. From the fossil remains found in it, it is considered to be of Cambrian age. :
For succeeding geological ages the district as a whole would appear to have been land since, except for s'ome - Jurassic limestone on Mount Hermon and in the Lebanon; ^ no rock formations are met with until we come to the Cretaceous, and the first of these is a shallow water formation.;
III. The Mesozoic series :
{a) LOWER CRETACEOUS.
Along the east coast of the Dead Sea is a uniform sand- stone, to whose variegated hues much of the admired colour effects of the " Mountains of Moab " are due. It extends southward above the old rocks almost to the Gulf of Akaba. On the west side of the Ghor it does not appear until the Gulf of Akaba is approached (except perhaps under Jebel Usdum). This great sandstone formation is spoken of as the Nubian sandstone, as it is supposed to be the same as this Egyptian rock,
{b) UPPER CRETACEOUS.
Following the deposition of the sandstone, this country, in common with a large part of eastern Asia, northern Africa
GEOLOGY 231
and southern and middle Europe, was more deeply sub- merged, and there was deposited the great thickness of limestones which form the grea»ter part of Palestine, namely, the plateau country east of the Ghor and the hill-country of western Palestine.
These rocks may be subdivided, in descending order, as follows :
Senonian : About 800 feet of soft white limestone and chalk with numerous flint bands. A few beds show incipient crystallization; one bed has limestone concretions up to six feet in diameter,
Turonian : About 700 feet of hard limestone and dolomite with flint at certain horizons; some bands of oolitic limestone and marl; the hard bands are crystallized in places to marble : the upper beds weather reddish or somewhat variegated.
Cenomanian : About 1 100 feet of hard yellowish limestone and dolomite with bands of soft marl and chalk.
While from a little distance these subdivisions may usually be broadly distinguished, especially the soft, white Senonian, on the spot the line of demarcation is often difficult to pick out without the aid of fossils, and fossils are not plentiful except in certain -beds, and even here the forms are often obscure. In the environs of Jerusalem fossils may be obtained. At the base of the Senonian about Nebi Musa and Mar Saba is a highly fossiliferous horizon. Below it at Nebi Musa and on the new Jericho road near by is the well-known black bituminous limestone, " Moses stone " or " Dead Sea " stone, or " stink-stone." It weathers light grey, but the fresh fracture is brown in the less bituminous and jet black in the highly bituminous beds. Below this bituminous limestone is a spotted brown one made up largely of fish remains and foraminifera.
The dark flint is characteristic, especially if the Senonian beds occur as nodules and bands. The latter are found between the beds of the formation and are continuous over long stretches. They sometimes attain a thickness of two
232 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
feet. As they resist weathering, they stand out con- spicuously from the soft limestones. The flint is formed by the solution and redeposition of silica from sponge and other animal remains in the rocks.
It is interesting to note that in Cretaceous times the conditions in Palestine and in England were similar. Both were deeply under water, in both immense deposits of lime carbonate were laid down, in both the latest beds are chalks characterized by richness in flints.
The distribution of these rocks is easily understood v/hen the structure is noted. The hill-country is formed by the folding of the rocks into an arch or anticline. Off the highest part of the arch the soft Senonian beds have been removed by denudation, uncovering the harder Turonian limestones and marbles. Thus, coming from the Coastal Plain, the first beds met are the Senonian chalks and lime- stones; then, when the beds rise up in the limb of the arch, the Turonian is exposed, and these beds form the backbone of the hills. Beyond Jerusalem, on the gently dropping eastern slope, the white Senonian is again seen, in many places disturbed so that the flint bands are frilled, curled and crumpled; the lower harder beds of the Turonian and Cenomanian form the rock terraces and wall of the Ghor (except just north of the Dead Sea, where the Senonian descends to the Jordan Valley), and the walls of the deeper wadis.
At a few points, as on Mount Carmel, basalt is found in the Turonian but not in the Senonian, suggesting some volcanic activity in the Cretaceous between these two periods.
IV. and V. Tertiary and Quaternary Series :
{a) EOCENE.
At a number of points in Samaria and northwards there occurs a limestone which, from its nummulitic fossils, is evidently of Eocene age. The most southerly occurrence is on the hills about Nablus. Fossils may be collected on Mount Gerizim.
GEOLOGY 233
(6) LATE TERTIARY AND RECENT.
It was probably soon after these Eocene limestones were formed that the land was upraised from the sea and began to take on its present aspect, for no widespread miocene or later marine deposits have been found. Before com- menting upon its recent history, which is somewhat com- plicated and not fully worked out, it will be well to mention the remaining rocks and other records upon which such a discussion must be based.
(c) MARINE.
Along the Coastal Plain, from below Gaza northward, there are at intervals exposures of a yellowish, reddish, or brownish weathering sandstone with a lime carbonate cement. It is sometimes fairly hard, but it is generally porous and soft. It is a comparatively recent formation though sufficiently consolidated to show jointing. Its exact age is as yet uncertain, but it is probably Pliocene or early Pleistocene.
Younger than this are the sands, gravels and shell-beds that mark an encroachment of the Mediterranean to an elevation of 220 feet above its present level. These sea- beds are well exposed between Jaffa and Ramleh. Near the latter they are represented by a calcareous conglomerate — the old beach. They are, no doubt, middle or late Pleistocene.
The recent alluvium and sand-dunes may hide other marine formations, just as they cover much of these just mentioned.
{d) LACUSTRINE AND FLUVIATILE.
The highest terraces of the Ghor, marking the extreme limits of the lake, consist of gravel or shingle, at an elevation a little above that of the Mediterranean. Such are the terraces about Safed, around Lake of Huleh, in the Araba valley, at Ain al-Weibeh, and on Samrat al-Fiddan.
The lowermost beds at the mouths of the larger wadis consist of boulders and sand, bearing evidence of the eroding
234 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE'
power of these streams when the dimate became moist enough to furnish water in excess of the loss by evaporation, and the Dead Sea began to rise and fill the Ghor.
The material that forms the main terraces of the Ghor, so well exhibited along the Jordan and along the coast of the Lisan peninsula, is quite different. While some clay beds occur near the bottom, it consists almost entirely of finely laminated marl, gypsum and salt. Over a consider- able thickness the laminae average no more than J in., and they are sometimes as fine as paper, but even the thinnest are continuous. They are the precipitates deposited after the climate had again become dry and the waters of the lake were being evaporated.
A pair of laminae of marl, gypsum and salt no doubt represent the deposits of one year, so that by counting these an accurate estimate of the length of time occupied in their formation could be obtained.
At several horizons in the Dead Sea formation large con- cretions of gypsum are forming, with long crystals of gypsum radiating from the centre. In these gypsum horizons nodules and also thin bands of light flour sulphur occur. Sulphur also forms coatings on the gypsum. One of these horizons is about forty feet above the Jordan, and a second about 1 20 feet above. The sulphur occurs in the same way and at similar horizons down to the south end of the Dead Sea.
Into the Dead Sea formation the Jordan has cut its channel. One of its flood plains is 20 feet above the summer level of the river and one 40 feet. Yellowish or reddi.sh weathering stratified clays, deposited by the Jordan, occa- sionally veneer the lowest terrace of Dead Sea formation, or cover lower levels of it to a height of 70 feet.
{e) VOLCANIC ROCKS.
Masses of basalt are found capping the plateau of Moab, and sending streams down the gorges and slopes toward the Dead Sea; the dark lava showing up conspicuously against the light colours of the limestone or sandstone. It
J
GEOLOGY 235
may be observed near Wadi Mojeb (Arnon), the Plain of Zara, Wadi Zerka, and on the north-east corner of the Dead Sea, where it plunges beneath its waters.
Above Lake Tiberias the basaltic lavas occur on the west side of the Jordan; the lake has basalt on all sides of it. The most important mass of basalt on the west is Jebel Safed. At Jebel Jish, 5 miles north-west of Safed, an extinct crater may be recognized.
In all these volcanic outpourings only basaltic rocks have been met with. It will be noted also that, except about Tiberias, volcanic activity has been confined to the east side of the Ghor.
Vulcanism extended over a considerable period and up to very recent, but not historical time (the nearest histori- cally active volcano is near Medina). That it extended over a considerable period is shown by the successive lava flows and the erosion of an older before the outpouring of a succeeding one. Th'at it continued until very recently is shown by the freshness of the cones, by the lava flows, constituting the most recent feature in the topography, and by the hot springs that are still active in these volcanic centres, while some of the springs in the Ghor may derive their comparatively low temperatures from the rock tem- perature at their source or from chemical change in the gypsum of other salts. The very hot springs are associated with the volcanic centres and undoubtedly are connected with vulcanism. They afford evidence that volcanic heat has not yet disappeared. In fact, volcanic activity might again be renewed. The great earthquake of 1837 which destroyed Tiberias, killing thousands, is a further reminder that the district has not yet settled down to quiet life.
The Ghor. — The Ghor is a great fault or dislocation in the earth's crust, along which the west side has relatively sunk. This fault may be seen in the Araba valley on its east side, where Cretaceous limestone is brought into con- tact with the old Pre-Cambrian rocks. At the south-east end of the Dead Sea these old rocks are still exposed. Along the east side of the Dead Sea the lower Cretaceous
236 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
sandstone forms the base of the exposed formations, while on the west the upper Cretaceous limestones occupy this position. This discrepancy in the level of the same horizon on the two sides of the Ghor amounts to 5000 feet at Mount Hor and about 1000 feet along the shore of the Dead Sea. The actual fissure is not visible from the Dead Sea north- wards, as it is covered by the sea or its deposits; but the east wall of the Ghor is the fault scarp, for it cannot be the result of erosion, since there has been no glacier in this valley, neither has there been a river flowing into the sea, as is shown by the rock-bed in the Akaba Valley at the watershed 660 feet above sea-level or 1952 feet above the Dead Sea. Indeed, the scarp itself shows that it is not river-eroded, for there are no interlobes but a straight wall between the tributary streams. The evidence for this fissure is conclusive, but the simple fissure and the sinking of the west side do not suffice to explain the complete trough. For the deepest portion of the trough is not where such sinking has been greatest, but where it is only 1000 feet; indeed, where it is greatest is the highest point in the trough. Nor is there any sign of warping. The full explanation would appear to be that this is one of the rare instances in which a trough has been formed by a sinking in of a strip of the earth's crust between two parallel faults (dislocations). The floor of the Ghor has dropped down. This would account for its deepest portion (over 2600 feet below sea-level) being in its centre. It would also answer the question as to what has become of the materials that once united the walls of the Ghor.
The formation of the Ghor commenced at the close of the Tertiary or beginning of the Pleistocene, and reached practically its present state before there set in the moist period, that produced glacial conditions in northern Europe. The climate must have been much the same as at present, for the old caiions of the Zerka and the Mojeb are very similar in size, shape and depth to their present ones. When the moist or Pluvial period came and the level of the old Dead Sea rose, they filled in their old caiions with gravel.
GEOLOGY 237
During this Pluvial period, which no doubt was con- temporaneous with the glacial period in Europe, the Dead Sea, as we have seen, rose to a height of about 1400 feet above its present level, forming a fresh-water lake from forty miles south of the Dead Sea to north of Lake Huleh, nearly 200 miles long. The beach deposits, rock terraces and cliffs show that it maintained this level for some time.
Following the Pluvial period came a period so dry that the waters of this great Jordan lake evaporated until only a remnant was left, a Dead Sea smaller than it is at present. During its desiccation various salts were precipitated, forming the thick deposits of marl, gypsum and salt that are now so marked a feature in the detailed topography of the Ghor. The long sloping terraces indicate even and continued lowering of the lake, the steep gradients pauses in the process of evaporation. A number of fresh- water shells, of which a considerable portion are existing species, are found in these deposits.
The salts in the water were derived from the salts released by the weathering of the rocks and brought in by the streams, or supplied by the thermal springs and volcanic emanations. The present water of the Dead Sea repre- sents the remaining " mother liquor " of Jordan lake, with such additional salts as have been brought in since it reached its present stage, less the salts (mostly common salt and gypsum) that have been and still are being pre- cipitated on the floor of the Dead Sea.
Since Kitchener's survey in 1883-4 ^^e sea has risen 18 or 20 feet. This is positive evidence that the climate has been growing moister, but it is of course possible that this may be of short duration or subject to periodic changes of moisture and drought.
The water of the lagoon south of the Lisan peninsula is only slightly over 30 feet deep, and the channel between the Lisan and the west shore only 29 feet deep. It is quite probable that within historical times the south end has been dry land, and physically possible that tradition is
238 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
correct when it fixes the sites of Sodom and Gomorrah beneath the oily waters of the Dead Sea.
The Ghor is still in a youthful condition. Its walls are still precipitous; tributaries have succeeded in excavating only narrow canons, down which they plunge in waterfalls. Faulting of the Dead Sea deposits and the earthquakes which still occasionally disturb the district give warning that the Assuring and faulting and deepening of the Ghor may still be proceeding, and that its dark sides may once more glow with streams of molten lava and the green plateau of Damascus again be lighted up by a wide crescent of volcanic fire.
§ 2. Mineral Resources.
Sand. — The coast-line is bordered by dunes, much of the sand of which is suitable for glass making. Figures given by Dr. R. Sabath show that the total oxide of iron and alumina vary from -42 to 1-5%; very pure limestones exist, and soda products may soon become available from utiliza- tion of Dead Sea salts. These sands also provide an un- limited supply for building purposes.
Limestone. — The limestone beds of Cenomanian and Turonian age furnish the principal building stones of Jerusalem and other towns.
They are known under the general names of mizzi, a hard limestone, and kakidi, a soft limestone.
The various divisions of the mizzi building stones appear to be somewhat confused by masons. They are
(i) mizzi ahmar — a red-flecked marble;
mizzi yasini — well bedded red and grey limestone, (ii) mizzi Yahudi — ^thick bedded dark grey or yellow
limestone traversed by veinlets of calcite; 'iii) meleki — a hippurite marble; (iv) mizzi helu—a, white compact splintery limestone with
chalcedonic nodules of Turonian age; (v) kakuU — a soft whitish limestone which quarries in slabs and is used for lintels, etc.
MINERAL RESOURCES 239
Higher up in the series occur phosphatic beds of Danian age, which form a hard but rather sombre building stone of a brown to black colour. In places the beds are entirely altered to apatite and provide beautiful green and red building stones, such as the mizzi akhdar of Beit Suhar. They are usually described as marbles, but are harder and more durable. In Galilee, where basalt is the prevalent rock, this is utilized both for road making and building purposes.
In the hilly parts of Samaria and Judaea as well as the southern part of Trans-jordania surface rocks are mostly limestone, which provides good material for burning to fat limes. Dolomite limestone and marl beds also occur, and, though the latter are often associated with gypsum, much of the material could probably be used for the manufacture of Portland Cement.
Thin bedded clays also occur in the Jordan valley and could be utilized for pottery, etc.
Phosphatic Deposits. — Immediately overlying the top flint beds of the Campanian division of the Senonian forma- tion are the beds containing bones, coprolites, etc., of phosphatic composition. These beds are very widespread both in Palestine and Trans-jordania. They have never been properly surveyed. Hence the information available only deals with a few scattered localities. Blanckenhorn examined samples from Nebi Musa and found 30% tri-calcic phosphate in beds 20 feet thick. It is, however, believed that much richer beds than these occur in Palestine. In Trans-jordania more careful examination has been made; and at Abu Tara three beds 10 metres, 7 metres, 3 metres in thickness occur, carrying an average of 51% tri-calcium phosphate. At Khar bet Botin the plateau contains beds 3 metres thick with 54-6% tri-calcic phosphate. Most of these deposits are close to the surface, and could very easily be quarried.
Bitumen. — Above the bone-beds there occurs in many parts of Palestine a shaly or bedded bituminous limestone, containing 10 to 30% of oil and bitumen. The best known
240 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
localities are at Nebi Musa, al-Salt, Wadi al-Quneitra, Safed, the Yarmuk valley, Bethlehem, Wadi Mahawit, etc.
Some of the material is poor in quality, but much of it would make excellent material for road asphalt. Some deposits are shaly, but those which Blanckenhorn ex- amined contained less than 2% of argillaceous material. In composition some varieties resemble the Val de Travers asphalt, and could be similarly utilized. The richer qualities are often used as fuel; the rock, once set on fire by means of brushwood, will continue to burn.
Several attempts have been made to utilize the material by distillation, the yield of oil being 8% or more, there being also a valuable proportion of combustible gas and bituminous tarry matter.
In addition to the bituminous limestone, bitumen sufficiently pure to mine occurs in various parts of the country.
Petroleum. — Besides the above occurrences of bitumen, which are examples of inspissated oil, there occur gas emanations and sepages of oil in several parts of the country, but more particularly in the southern part of the Dead Sea region. The dolomite at Ain-Gedi and Mas'ada drips oily bitumen, ^nd the sandstone on the east shore of the Dead Sea and at Jebel Usdum is bituminous.
The consensus of expert opinion is that oil occurs in southern Palestine, but that only drilling will decide as to what are the commercial aspects of the problem. It is generally agreed that sunken blocks of the Ghor are petroleum-bearing, and that oil will be obtained by drilling into the Senonian-Turonian beds. The greater prospects of oil occurring in large quantities in the anticlinal flexures to the west are at present the principal attraction.
The Standard Oil Company is now prospecting over the area granted by pre-war concessions around Kharnub, and is optimistic as to the final outcome of its efforts.
Dead Sea Salts. — One of the greatest mineral assets of Palestine is the salt of the Dead Sea {cf. § i above). The average percentage of salts in the strong brine is at least
MINERAL RESOURCES 241
25%, of which 34% is sodium chloride, 4% to 7% potassium chloride, and up to 1% or more magnesium bromide.
The volume of the Dead Sea is somewhere in the region of 120,000,000,000 cubic metres; hence the area contains roughly 30,000,000,000 tons of mixed salts, of which possibly 1,500,000,000 tons are potassium chloride. Palestine is thus the richest country in the world for potash resources. These also occur under the most favourable conditions. The salts occur as a strong brine, immediately ready for evaporation and crystallization for the production of pure salts by the natural heat of the sun.
With the advent of cheap transport and abundant sup- plies of electricity, other manufactures, such as electrolytic production of alkali, are possible. The salt deposits of Jebel Usdum also appear to be of considerable extent.
Metallic Minerals. — Palestine is not rich in metallic minerals, as the following notes indicate :
Copper : Copper ores were worked by the ancients in the older Palaeozoic rocks south of the Dead Sea in the neighbourhood of Fenan. The metal was also ex- tracted or smelted on the spot. The present state of deposits is unknown. Copper ores are also said to exist in the vicinity of Mt. Carmel. Iron Ores are known to occur in small quantities in many localities throughout Palestine, but there is no information of deposits of any considerable extent. Gold has been reported, "but the localities given seem unlikely, and authentic occurrences are yet to be discovered. The country has been so little prospected for metallic minerals, particularly in the south and north-east, that our present knowledge of the subject cannot be accepted as an indication of its resources; and it is possible that farther exploration may reveal valuable deposits of ore.
I.. p.
242 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
§ 3. Mammalia.
Palestine exhibits a remarkable range of climate, eleva- tion and topography. Fauna and flora in consequence present a strange assembly of European, Asiatic and African types, of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate character. Few groups have as yet been exhaustively studied, and much material of recent collection awaits detailed examina- tion. In these circumstances, the present notes can only be offered as a preliminary outline of a very intriguing field of research.
The mammalian fauna of Palestine is remarkable for the number of larger animals which are on the verge, or have recently passed the verge, of extinction, a result due in part to modern firearms, in part to the destruction of the forests.
Among those which have become rare or extinct in the last few decades are the roe deer {Cervus capreolus), the fallow deer (C. dama), the leopard [Felis pardus), and the Syrian bear {Ursus syriacus). The gazelle {Gazella dorcas) and the Syrian ibex {Capra heden) are also much scarcer than formerly.
Several carnivorous mammals are still far from rare, such as the jungle cat {Felis chaus), the wild cat [F. bubastis Ehrenbg.),the striped hyaena {Hyaena striata) , the mongoose {Herpestes ichneumon), the wolf {Vulpes portali), the jackal {Canis aureus), and one or two races of fox.
Among the smaller animals, may be mentioned several species of hare, the porcupine {Acanthion leucurus), spiny mice {A corny s), the dwarf hamster {Cricetulus migratorius) , many gerbils and jerboas in the south of the country, a vole {Microtus syriacus : Brants), several species of dor- mouse and of shrews, a race of the European hedgehog and of the desert hedgehog Erinaceus auritus) , and a score of bats. The most interesting of the bats is Rousettus {Cynonycteris) aegyptiacus, a fruit-bat which is very destruc- tive to figs and other ripe fruit, and spends the day in caves,
MAMMALIA 243
The smaller animals of Palestine are still very imperfectly known. The full list would be a long one, because desert rodents and hedgehogs occur side by side with such northern forms as the voles, the European hedgehogs and the dwarf hamster.
The European house mouse {Mus musculus) and various races of the black rat {Rattus rattus) have been imported, and are abundant in the towns.
Among types recently described, Nesokia bacheri Nhrng, a big, rat-like rodent from the southern shore of the Dead Sea, is killed by the Beduin in large numbers. Procavia Schmitzi Matsch, a hyrax-like animal, is found in the moun- tains surrounding Lake Huleh. •
§ 4. Birds}-
The geographical position of Palestine accounts for the very large number of migratory birds which have been recorded. While the country can boast of only about one hundred resident species, at least two hundred migrants, some of which may breed locally in small numbers, have been described on indubitable authority.
(w.v, — winter visitor, s.v, — summer visitor.)
1. Turdus viscivorus. Missel thrush; occasional w.v.
2. Turdus philomelus. Song thrush; very common w.v.
3. Turdus pilaris. Fieldfare; occasional w.v.
4. Turdus merula. Blackbird; common w.v. and locally common resident.
5. Monticola solitarius. Blue thrush; common w.v. and locally common resident.
6. Monticola saxatilis. Rock thrush; uncommon migrant, common in some years.
7. Oenanthe oenanthe. Common wheatear; common migrant.
•For fuller notes on some of the birds of Palestine see Col, R. Meinertzhageii, Not^s on the Birds of Southern Palestine, in The Ibis for January, 1920
244 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
non 11
8. Oenanthe isabellina. Isabelline wheatear; common
migrant and locally common resident.
_ ,7 , ■ , f Black-throated wheatear.
Q. Oenanthe hispamca. i -r^, , -, -, .
^Black-eared wheatear.
Very common s.v. in both forms; the former is the more common.
ID. Oenanthe deserti. Desert wheatear; uncommon resident.
11. Oenanthe fins chi. Arabian wheatear; common w. v. and resident in the south.
12. Oenanthe pleschanka. Eastern pied wheatear; once recorded from Rafa.
13. Oenunthe moesta. Tristram's wheatear : rare resident.
14. Oenanthe lugens. Pied wheatear; locally common resident.
15. Oenanthe monacha. Hooded wheatear; rare resident.
16. Oenanthe leucopyga. White rumped wheatear; un- common resident near Dead Sea.
17. Cercomela melanura. Blackstart; not uncommon near the Dead Sea.
18. Saxicola rubetra. Whinchat; uncommon migrant.
19. Saxicola torquata. Stonechat; common w.v.
20. Phoenicurus phoenicurus. Common redstart; com- mon migrant.
21. Phoenicurus p. mesoleuca. Ehrenberg's redstart; common migrant.
22. Phoenicurus ochruros. Black redstart; common w.v.
23. Luscinia luscinia. Sprosser nightingale; migrant.
24. Luscinia megarhyncha. Nightingale; migrant (Tris- tram states that it breeds in Palestine).
25. Luscinia s. suecica. Bluethroat; fairly common w.v.
26. Luscinia s. volgae. White-spotted bluethroat; w.v. less common than the last.
27. Erithacus rubecula. Robin; common w.v.
28. Prunella modularis. Hedge sparrow; fairly common w.v.
29. Sylvia communis. Whitethroat; common migrant and s.v.
BIRDS 245
30. Sylvia curruca. Lesser whitethroat; common migrant. (Perhaps breeds.)
31. Sylvia cantillahs. Subalpine warbler; uncommon migrant and s.v.
32. Sylvia conspicillata. Spectacled warbler; fairly common resident.
33. Sylvia melanothorax . Palestine warbler (one pair obtained by Tristram near the Dead Sea).
34. Sylvia melanocephala. Sardinian warbler; fairly common resident.
35. Sylvia melanocephala momus. Bowman's warbler; common resident.
36. Sylvia hortensis. Orphean warbler; common migrant and s.v.
37. Sylvia ruppelli. Ruppell's warbler; uncommon migrant.
38. Sylvia atricapilla. Blackcap; common w.v. (a few remain to breed).
39. Sylvia borin. Garden warbler; common migrant (Tristram states that it breeds in Palestine).
40. Sylvia nisoria. Barred warbler; rare migrant.
41. Sylvia nana. Desert warbler; only recorded from south end of Dead Sea.
42. A gr abates galactotes. Rufous warbler; very common s.v.
43. Scotocerca inquieta. Scrub warbler; uncommon resident.
44. Prinia gracilis. Graceful warbler; common resi- dent.
45. Cisticola cisticola. Fantailed warbler; locally com- mon resident.
46. Phylloscopus superciliosus. Yellow-browed warbler (one obtained by Tristram at Jericho in 1864).
47. Phylloscopus collybita. Chifchaff; common w.v.
48. Phylloscopus irochilus. Willow warbler; common migrant.
49. Phylloscopus sibilatrix. Wood warbler; common migrant in the plains.
246 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
50. Phylloscopus bonellii. Bonelli's warbler; common migrant and uncommon s.v.
51. Hypolais olivetorum. Olivetree warbler; common migrant (a few remain to breed).
52. Hypolais languida. Upchir's warbler; common s.v. in the hills.
53. Hypolais pallida. Olivaceous warbler; common s.v. in the plains and Jordan valley.
54. Acrocephalus scirpaceus. Reed warbler; common migrant.
55. Acrocephalus palustris. Marsh warbler; migrant.
56. Acrocephalus arundinacea. Great reed warbler; common s.v.
57. Acrocephalus stentoreus. Clamorous reed warbler; common s.v. in Huleh marshes.
58. Acrocephalus schoenicola. Sedge warbler; uncom- mon migrant.
59. Lusciniola melanopogon. Moust ached warbler; com- mon in Beisan marshes in winter; possibly resident.
60. Locustella fluviatilis . River warbler; uncommon s.v.
61. Locustella luscinioides . Savi's warbler; scarce s.v.
62. Cettia cettii. Cetti's warbler; possibly resident.
63. Crater opus squamiceps. Palestine bush babbler; common near Jericho.
64. Parus major. Great tit; common resident.
65. Troglodytes troglodytes. Wren; rare w.v.
66. Motacilla alba. White wagtail; common w.v. and rare resident.
67. Motacilla vidua. White-winged wagtail (obtained by Dr. Herschell in the Jordan valley).
68. Motacilla cinerea. Grey wagtail; uncommon w.v.
69. Motacilla flava. Blueheaded yellow wagtail; very common migrant in the plains.
70. Motacilla melanocephala. Blackheaded wagtail; un- common migrant.
71. Anthus pratensis. Meadow pipit; common w.v.
72. Anthus trivialis. Tree pipit; common w.v.
73. Anthus cervinus. Redthroated pipit; common w.v.
I
BIRDS 247
74. Anthus spinoletus . Water pipit; uncommon w.v.
75. Anthus campestris. Tawny pipit; common migrant and scarce resident.
76. Anthus sordidus. Brown rock pipit; common s.v. in the hills; said to winter in the plains and Jordan valley.
77. Pycnonotus xanthopygius. Palestine bulbul; com- mon resident.
78. Oriolus galhula. Golden oriole; common spring migrant.
79. Lanius excubitor elegans. Pallid shrike; common resident round Gaza and southward.
80. Lanius e. aucheri. Finsch's shrike; common resident in the Jordan valley.
81. Lanius minor. Lesser grey shrike; irregular s.v. to the plains.
82. Lanius senator. Woodchat shrike; common s.v.
83. Lanius nubicus. Masked shrike; common s.v.
84. Lanius collurio. Red-backed shrike; common mi- grant and locally common s.v.
85. Muscicapa striata. Spotted flycatcher; common s.v.
86. Muscicapa hypoleuca. Pied flycatcher; uncommon migrant.
87. Muscicapa albicollis. Collared flycatcher; uncom- mon migrant.
88. Hirundo rustica. Common swallow; common s.v.
89. Hirundo r. transitiva. Palestine swallow; common resident.
90. Hirundo daurica. Red-rumped swallow; common s.v.
91. Delichonurbica. House martin; uncommon migrant.
92. Riparia riparia. Sand martin; fairly common migrant (a few breed).
93. Riparia rupestris. Crag swallow; fairly common resident.
94. Riparia obsoleta. Pale crag swallow; resident in Dead Sea basin.
95. Cinnyris osea. Palestine sunbird; common resident in the Jordan valley and spreads over the rest of the country in winter.
248 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
96. Carduelis carduelis. Goldfinch; very common resi- dent.
97. Acanthis cannabina. Linnet; common resident.
98. Serinus canarius. Serin; common w.v.
99. Spinus spinus. Siskin; rare w.v.
100. Chloris chloris. Greenfinch; common resident, loi. Coccothraustes coccothraustes. Hawfinch; occa- sional visitor.
102. Passer domesticus. Sparrow; very common resi- dent.
103. Passer hispaniolensis . Spanish sparrow; common resident and w.v.
104. Passer moabiticus. Dead Sea sparrow; resident near Dead Sea.
105. Petronia petronia. Rock sparrow; common s.v.
1 06. Fringilla coelebs. Chaffinch; common w.v.
107. Carpodacus sinaiticus. Sinai rosenfinch; rare resi- dent between Beersheba and the Dead Sea.
108. Erythrospiza githaginea. Desert bullfinch; uncom- mon resident in the extreme south.
109. Rhodospiza obsoleta. Persian desert bullfinch; un- common w.v.
no. Emberiza melanocephala. Blackheaded bunting; common s.v.
111. Emberiza calandra. Common bunting; common resident.
112. Emberiza hortulana. Ortolan bunting; common migrant.
113. Emberiza striolata. S.triped bunting; uncommon resident near the Dead Sea.
114. Emberiza cia. Meadow bunting; fairly common w.v.
115. Emberiza caesia. Cretzschmaer's bunting; com- mon s.v.
116. Sturnus vulgaris. Starling; common w.v.
117. Sturnus unicolor. Sardinian starling; scarce w.v.
118. Pastor roseus. Ros6-coloured starling; irregular visitor, usually following locusts.
BIRDS 249
119. Amydrus iristrami. Tristram's grakle; resident near Dead Sea.
120. Garrulus atricapillus. Syrian jay; common resi- dent.
JE2I. Corvus monedula. Jackdaw; common w.v. and locally resident.
122. Corvus frugilegus. Rook; common w.v.
.123. Corvus comix. Hooded crow; common resident.
124. Corvus affinis. Fantail raven; resident near Dead Sea.
125. Corvus corax. Raven; common resident.
126. Corvus c. umbrinus. Brown-necked raven; com- mon resident in the south.
127. Alaemon alaudipes. Bifasciated lark; resident in the southern desert.
128. Galerita cristata. Crested lark; very common resident.
129,. Alauda arvensis . Skylark; very common w.v.
130. Lullula arbor ea. Woodlark; common w.v., possibly breeds.
131. Ammomanes deserti. Desert lark; common resident in desert parts of the country.
132. Calandrella brachydactyla. Short-toed lark; fairly common s.v.
133. Calandrella minor. Lesser short- toed lark; fairly common in deserts; resident.
134. Melanocorypha calandra. Calandra lark; common resident in northern Palestine.
135. Melanocorypha bimaculata. Eastern calandra lark; common resident on the coastal plain.
136. Apus apus. Common swift; common s.v.
137. Apus melba. Alpine swift; common s.v.
138. Apus affinis. White-rumped swift; locally com- mon s.v.
139. Caprimulgus europaeus. Common nightjar; com- mon migrant.
140. Caprimulgus ruficollis. Red-necked nightjar; once recorded from Jerusalem.
250 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
141. Caprimulgus tamaricis. Probably resident near Dead Sea.
142. Dry abates syriacus. Syrian woodpecker; common resident.
143. Yunx torquilla. Wryneck; common migrant and a few winter in the Jordan valley.
144. Alcedo arthis. Common kingfisher; common w. v.
145. Ceryle rudis. Pied kingfisher; common resident.
146. Halcyon smyrnensis. Smyrna kingfisher; common resident.
147. Coracias garrula. Roller; common migrant and s. v.
148. Merops apiaster. Common bee-eater; very com- mon s.v.
149. Merops persicus. Blue-checked bee-eater; uncom- mon s.v.
150. Merops viridis. Green bee-eater; possibly migrant.
151. Upupa epops. Hoopoe; common s.v.
152. Cuculus canorus. Cuckoo; common migrant.
153. Clamator glandarius. Great spotted cuckoo; com- mon migrant and scarce resident.
154. Tyto alba. Barn owl; common resident.
155. Ketupa zeylonensis . Brown fish owl; resident in a few wadis.
156. Asio otus. Longeared owl (Tristram found this bird in Galilee).
157. Asio flammens. Shorteared owl; migrant.
158. Otus scops. Scops owl; common s.v.
159. Bubo ascalaphus. Egyptian eagle owl; resident in the southern desert.
160. Bubo ignavus. Eagle owl; resident.
161. Athene glaux. Southern little owl; very common resident.
162. Gypaetus barbatus. Bearded vulture (found by Tristram near the Dead Sea).
163. Vultur monachus. Black vulture; occasional.
164. Gyps fulvus. Griffon vulture; very common resident.
165. Neophron perenopterus. Egyptian vulture; very common s.v.
BIRDS 251
166. Circus aeruginosus. Marsh harrier; very common w.v. (a few are said to breed).
167. Circus pygargus. Montagu's harrier; scarce mi- grant.
168. Circus cyaneus. Hen harrier; fairly common resi- dent.
169. Circus macrourus. Pallid harrier; common resi- dent.
170. Buteo vulgaris. Common buzzard; commop mi- grant.
171. Buteo ferox. Longlegged buzzard; common resi- dent.
172. Pernis apivorus. Honey buzzard; migrant.
173. Aquila chrysaetus. Golden eagle; w.v.
174. Aquila heliaca. Imperial eagle; fairly common resident.
175. Aqiiila clanga. Spotted eagle; scarce resident,
176. Aquila rapax. Tawny eagle; scarce resident.
177. Aquila fasciata. Bonelli's eagle; common resident.
178. Hieraetus pennatus. Booted eagle; uncommon migrant.
179. Circaetus gallicus. Short -toed eagle; very common s.v.
180. Accipiter nisus. Sparrow hawk; common w.v.
181. Milvus milvus. Red kite; common w.v.
182. Milvus migrans. Black kite; common resident.
183. Milvus m. aegypticus Egyptian kite; occasional in the south.
1.84. Elanus coervileus. Black-shouldered kite; occa- sional.
185. Falco peregrinus. Peregrine; fairly common resi- dent.
186. Falco hiarmicus. Lanner falcon; common migrant, locally resident.
187. Falco subbuteo. Hobby; fairly common s.v. i88. Falco eleanorae. Eleanora falcon; rare s.v,
189. Falco columbarius. Merlin; common w.v.
190. Falco vespertinus. Red-footed falcon; rare s.v.
252 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
191. Falco tinnunculus . Kestrel; very common resident .
192. Falco naumanni. Lesser kestrel; common s.v.
193. Pandion haliaetus. Osprey; common w.v.
194. Phalacrocorax carbo. Cormorant; common w.v.
195. Phalacrocorax pygmaeus. Little cormorant; com- mon w.v. (perhaps breeds in Huleh marshes).
196. Pelecanus onocrotalus. Rosy pelican; fairly com- mon w.v.
197. Pelecanus crispus. Dalmatian pelican; fairly com- mon w.v.
198. Plotus levaillantii. African darter; w.v., to Huleh.
199. Ardea cinerea. Grey heron; very common migrant.
200. Ardea purpurea. Purple heron; common resident.
201. Egretta alba. Great white heron; rare w.v.
202. Egretta garzetta. Little egret; uncommon resident.
203. Bubulcus ibis. Buff backed heron; uncommon w.v.
204. Ardeola ralloides. Squacco heron; common mi- grant (possibly breeds).
205. Nycticorax nycticorax. Night heron; uncommon migrant.
206. Ixobrychus minutus. Little bittern; common resi- dent.
207. Botaurus stellaris. Bittern; common resident.
208. Ciconia ciconia. White stork; very common migrant.
209. Ciconia nigra. Black stork; uncommon migrant.
210. Platalea leucorodia. Spoonbill; rare w.v.
211. Plegadis falcinellus. Glossy ibis; occasional w.v.
212. Phoenicopterus ruber. Flamingo; uncommon w.v.
213. Anser cinereus. Grey goose; "1 occa-
214. Anser segetum. Bean goose; ^ sional
215. Anser albifrons. White-fronted goose; J w.v.
216. Branta leucopsis. Barnacle goose; fairly common w.v.
217. Cygnus olor. Mute swan; occasional w.v.
218. Cygnus musicus. Whooper swan; occasional w.v.
219. Alopochen aegyptiaca. Egyptian goose; occasional
BIRDS 253
220. Tadorna tadorna. Common shell-duck; uncommon w.v.
221. Tadorna casarca. Ruddy shell-duck; uncommon resident.
222. Anas platyrhyncha. Mallard; common w.v.
223. Anas strepera. Gadwall; common w.v.
224. Anas angustirostris. Marbled duck; fairly common resident.
225. Anas acuta. Pintail duck; common w.v.
226. Anas querquedula. Garganey; fairly common mi- grant.
227. Anas crecca. Teal; very common w.v.
228. Anas pmelope. Wigeon; uncommon w.v.
229. Spatula clypeata. Shoveller; fairly common w.v.
230. Nyroca ferina. Pochard;, fairly common w.v.
231. Nyroca fuligula. Tufted duck; very common w.v.
232. Nyroca nyroca. White-eyed duck; common w.v.
233. Oedemia nigra. Scoter; occasional w.v.
234. Erismatura leucocephala. White-headed duck; said to be resident.
235. Mergus serrator. Merganser; common w.v.
236. Mergus albellus. Simew (obtained by Tristram).'
237. Columhapalumhus. Wood pigeon; common migrant.
238. Columha oenas. Stock dove; common w.v.
239. Columba livia. Rock dove; common resident.
240. Streptopelia turtur. Turtle dove; very common s.v.
241. Streptopelia decaocto. Collared turtle dove; com- mon resident in the Jordan valley.
242. Streptopelia senegalensis. Palm dove; resident in Jerusalem.
243. Pterocles orientalis. Black-bellied sandgrouse; resident in the southern desert.
244. Pterocles alchata. Pintailed sandgrouse; common resident in the south.
245. Pterocles senegallus. Senegal sandgrouse; very common resident in the south.
246. Pterocles exustus. Singed sandgrouse; common resident in the south.
254 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
247. Alectoris graeca. Chucar; common resident.
248. Ammoperdrix heyi. Hey's partridge; common resident near Jericho.
249. Francolinus vulgaris. Francolin; common resident in marshes.
250. Coturnix coturnix. Quail; very common migrant.
251. Rallus aquaticus. Water-rail; uncommon resident.
252. Porzana porzana. Spotted crake; common migrant
253. Crex crex. Landrail; common migrant.
254. Porphyrio caeruleus. Purple gallinule; occurs in Huleh marshes.
255. Gallinula chloropus. Moorhen; common resident.
256. Fulica atra. Coot; common w.v.
257. Megalornis grus. Crane; fairly common w.v.
258. Anthropoides virgo. Demoiselle crane; fairly com- mon w.v.
259. Otis tarda. Great bustard; possibly migrant.
260. Otis tetrax. Little bustard; possibly resident.
261. Burhinus oedicnemus. Stone -curlew; common resident.
262. Glareola pratincola. Pratincole; common.s.v.
263. Cursorius gallicus. Courser; common s.v. in the south.
264. Charadrius apricarius. Golden plover; fairly com- mon w.v.
265. Charadrius helveticus. Grey plover; not uncommon w.v. on the coast.
266. Charadrius geojfroyi. GeofEroy's plover; common migrant.
267. Charadrius hiaticula. Ringed plover; common w.v.
268. Charadrius curonica. Lesser ringed plover; com- mon w.v. (perhaps breeds).
269. Charadrius alexandrinus. Kentish plover; com- mon resident.
270. Charadrius morinellus. Dotterel; common w.v.
271. Hoplopterus spinosus. Spur- winged plover; fairly common resident.
272. Vanellus vanellus. Lapwing; very common w.v,
BIRDS 255
273. Recurvirosta avocetta. Avocet; uncommon w.v.
274. Himaniopus himantopus. Stilt; fairly common s.y.
275. Scolopax nisticola. Woodcock; common w.v.
276. Gallinago gallinago. Snipe; very common w.v.
277. Gallinago gallinula. Jack snipe; very common w.v.
278. Erolia alpina. Dunlin; very common w.v.
279. Erolia ferruginea. Curlew sandpiper; common migrant.
280. Erolia minuta. Little stint; very common w.v.
281. Philomachus pugnax . RuflE; common migrant.
282. Calidris arenaria. Sanderling; fairly common w.v.
283. Limicola falcinellus. Broad-billed sandpiper; un- common migrant.
284. Totanus hypoleucos. Common sandpiper; common migrant (probably breeds).
285. Totanus ochropus. Green sandpiper; common w.v.
286. Totanus stagnatalis. Marsh sandpiper; fairly com- mon migrant.
287. • Totanus glareola. Wood sandpiper; uncommon migrant.
288. Totanus calidris. Redshank; common w.v.
289. Totanus fuscus. Spotted redshank; rare migrant. "290. Totanus canescens. Greenshank; uncommon mi- grant.
291. Limosa limosa. Black-tailed godwit; uncommon w.v.
292. Numenius arquatus. Curlew; fairly common w.v.
293. Numenius phaeopus. Whimbrel; rare w.v.
294. Sterna fluviatilis. Common tern; common s. v.
295. Sterna minuta. Little tern; uncommon w.v.
296. Sterna media. Allied tern;
297. Sterna anglica. Gull-billed tern;
298. Sterna caspia. Caspian tern;
299. Sterna bergii. Swift tern;
300. Hydrochelidon hyhrida. Whiskered tern; fairly common resident.
301. Hydrochelidon nigra. Black tern; uncommon s,v,
rare w.v.s.
256 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
I
302. Hydrochelidon leucoptera. Whitewinged black tern; fairly common migrant.
303. Larus ridibundus. Black-headed gull; common w.v.
304. Larus melanocephalus. Adriatic gull; possible common w.v.
305. Larus ichthyaetus. Great black-headed gull; com- mon w.v. on sea of Galilee.
306. Larus canus. Common gull; fairly common w.v.
307. Larus gelastes. Slender-billed gull; uncommon w.v.
308. Larus cachinans. Yellow-legged herring gull; common w.v.
309. Larus argentatus. Herring giill; uncommon w.v.
310. Larus fuscus. Lesser black-backed gull; common w.v.
311. Puffinus anglorum. Manx shearwater; one speci- men found by Tristram.
312. Puffinus kuhlii. Mediterranean shearwater; some- times seen near shore.
313. Podiceps cristatus. Great crested grebe; very common w.v. (probably breeds on Huleh).
314. Podiceps nigricollis. Eared grebe; common s.v.
315. Podiceps griseigena. Red-necked grebe; rare w.v.
316. Podiceps fluviatilis. Little grebe; common resident.
§ 5. Reptilia.
Venomous snakes are of comparatively rare occurrence in Palestine and the number of species is small. Viperine types are seldom found in densely populated areas, their habitat being characteristically the true desert or stony and unfrequented hills. In habit they are almost ex- clusively nocturnal and viviparous. A collector of standing states that, of hundreds of ophidia secured during a period of twenty-one years, he has only obtained in the Jaffa district four viperine specimens {Daboia xanthina and Viper a confluenta), apparently driven from the hills by
REPTILIA 257
military operations. He had similarly been unable to obtain a single viperine snake from the vicinity of Jerusalem.
On the other hand, the valuable services rendered by the colubrine snakes, as destroyers of field mice, locusts and other insect pests, have been repeatedly advanced in pleas for the protection of this group.
Ophidia.
1. Typhlops syriacus. Syrian blind snake; so-called from its rudimentary eyes. This snake is found everywhere in Palestine and feeds largely on insects.
2. Onychocephalus simoni. Onl}^ known to occur in the Jaffa and Haifa areas; feeds on insects.
3. Micrelaps mulleri. Generally found in the hills, but also in the Jaffa area.
4. Rhyncocalamus melanocephalus . A small, black- headed snake of very general occurrence; feeds on worms and insects.
5. Ablabes modestus. One variety {A. m. inornata : Jan.) is only recorded from Jerusalem. A. m. deceme- lineata, however, has been reported from Jerusalem, Plain of Sharon and Lake Huleh; A.m. quadrilineata occurs throughout Galilee, Phoenicia and Jerusalem.
6. Lytorhynchus diadema. A brownish-yellow snake with darker rhomboidal spots on the back, only known to occur in the Jaffa district.
7. Periops parallelus. This colubrine snake is recog- nizable by the small scutella between the inferior edge of the eye and the superior labial scuta; only found in the hills.
8. Zamenis caudaelineatus . In rocky hills.
9. Z. carhonarius. A black coluber which devoured enormous numbers of locusts during invasions of this insect pest.
10, Z. gemonensis var. Asiana. Of general occurrence. During the winter hundreds of specimens may be found rolled up together in a single burrow.
258 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
1
rrenr.e. II
11. Z. dahlii. A grey-green snake of general occurrence. Black ' ocelli ' with white margins are found on the neck.
12. Z. ravergieri. A hill type characterized by a zigzag line following the length of the back, in which each sinus is marked by a prominent spot.
13. Tropidonotus tesselatus v. hydrus. Found in all rivers, pools and ponds. Destructive to fish.
14. T. natrix. A less common water-snake than the above, with similar habits.
15. Coelopeltis lacertina. A big coluber of general occur- rence which destroys large numbers of field mice.
16. Psammophis moniliger : v. hierosolymitana. From Jerusalem, Jaffa and Haifa.
17. Tarbophis vivax : v. syriaca. Of general occurrence. This species and Typhlops syriacus are the only colubrine snakes of nocturnal habit.
18. Eryx jaculus. Occurs in sandy areas on the plain of Sharon. Simulates a viperine type by the small size of the cephalic scutella, and the number of rows of escutcheons between eye and oral fissure.
19. Naja haje. Confined to the desert south of Beersheba and very rarely found.
20. Viper a euphratica. Found near Jericho.
21. Daboia xanthina. Commonly found near human habitations, and is responsible for some loss of live stock in stables; fairly common in the south.
22. Vipera confluenta. Rarely found in the Jaffa area.
23. Cerastes hasselquistii. Occasionally found round the Dead Sea and in the Wadi Araba. In Syria it is of very common occurrence and is the only viper known to that country.
24. Echis arenicola. Occurs from the Wadi Fara'a to the Dead Sea in the Jordan valley.
Lacertidae.
25. Psammosaurus scincus. A huge lizard attaining a length of a metre. Of common occurrence in sandy places.
REPTILIA
259
Feeds on birds, smaller reptiles, gerboas, rats and locusts. Eaten by the Arabs and employed locally for medicinal purposes.
26. Lacerta viridis. This green lizard is only found among herbage on the hills.
27. L.judaica. Occurs in towns and frequents ruins and broken walls.
28. L. agilis. In the Jerusalem area and round the Dead Sea.
29. Ophiops elegans. Of general occurrence; char- acterized by the absence of eyelids.
30. Acanthodactylis syriacus. Of general occurrence in sandy plains; exhibits fringed toes.
31. Podarcus pardalis. A coastal type of general occur- rence.
32. Pseudopus apus. A gigantic lizard of general but rare occurrence; distinguished by a deep neck and body fold.
33. Ablepharus panonicus. In the Haifa area.
34. Eumeces schneideri. Common in sandy plains.
35. Euprepes fellowsi. Of general occurrence.
36. Ophiomorus miliaris. Common in Galilee.
37. Gongylus ocellatus. Abundant everywhere; dis- tinguished by regular, black and white, transverse bars.
38. Seps monodactylus . Abundant in marshes.
39. Sphenops capistratus . Found in the Jaffa area; passes rapidly through sand at considerable depths below the surface.
40. Platyodactylus hasselquistii. Chiefly in towns. Of nocturnal habit, catching moths and insects attracted by artificial light; utters a characteristic clicking sound.
41. Platydactylusmauritanicus. Occurs only in caves and rock crevices.
42. Stellio vulgaris . A spiny gecko of common occurrence on walls, ruins, etc.; partial to locusts.
43. Chamaeleo vulgaris. Occurs everywhere; attains an abnormal size at Jericho.
26o
THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
§ 6. Fishes.
Varieties. — A large variety of edible fish occurs in the coastal and lacustrine waters of Palestine. Both the tunny and sardine, among other migratory types, visit the coast at regular seasons, and the question of developing a very primitive fishing industry is receiving attention. The following species figure in the catch brought to the local markets at Haifa, Jaffa and Gaza :
Arabic name. Scientific name.
Ataut. Lichia glauca, l>2ice-pede.
Buri. Mugil cephalus, Cuvier.
Bursh. Raja sp.
Dawakir. Epinephelus aeneus, Geoffroy.
Dhahaban. Mugil auratus, Risso.
Farriden. Pagellus erythrinus, L.
Geragh. Pristipoma Bennettii.
Intias.
Isfirna. Sphyraena vulgaris, L.
Kelb el Bahr. Phoca vitulina.
Lahat. Cirrhosa umhrina, L.
Lukus. S err anus sp.
Marmir. Pagellus mormyrus, L.
Muskar. Sciaena aquila, Cuvier.
Salbieh. Lichia vadigo, Risso.
Salfooh. RMnohatus cemiculus, Geoffroy.
Samak Musa. Solea vulgaris, Risso.
Saraghis. Sargus sp.
Sardyna. Clupea sardina, Cuvier.
Sultan Ibrahim. Mullus surmuletus, L.
Tarakhol. Caranx fusus, Geoff. S. Hillaire.
Tobara. Mugil capita, Cuvier.
Turgollos. Caranx rhonchus, Geoff. S. Hillaire.
Industry. — The fishing industry employs only 649 men and 117 boats, of which 115 men and 26 boats are found on the Lake of Tiberias. As no harbour exists on the whole coast-line, craft are limited to open rowing boats which
FISHES 261
can be launched from the beach, and these in no case exceed three tons in measurement. Faihng even slipways, the difficulties of landing prohibit fishing in any but the finest weather, while the size of boat places trawling out of the question. An Ottoman Public Debt tax of 20% ad valorem on the catch led to a deliberate policy of limiting production with a view to maintaining what were practically famine prices. This impost was consequently repealed by decree in August, 1920; while the common practice of dynamiting and poisoning were prohibited by the " Protection of Fisheries Ordinance " promulgated in the same year. The first requirement of the industry having been definitely established as safe harbourage for fishing craft, the coast- line was examined in detail, sites selected which lent them- selves to economic development, and plans prepared for works at Gaza, Jaffa and Haifa. An endeavour was then made to interest foreign capital in the manifest opening for profitable investment. All species of edible fish commonly brought to the market were collected and identified : a daily record of the varieties, size and weight of fish landed at the three principal ports permitted the construction of charts showing periodicity of migratory types, spawning and maturity seasons; while the establishment of meteoro- logical stations at three points on the coast enables the fishery service to complete a review of the conditions in which any company attempting a development of fishing on modern commercial lines would be called upon to work. Consolidated and amended fishery regulations are being based upon the results of this investigation.
§ 7. Insects.
The following species represent a preliminary examination of insects of economic importance in Palestine, including forms of both noxious and beneficial character. The field of economic entomology is, as yet, almost untouched, with the exception of a detailed investigation of the scale insects by visiting entomologists from Egypt. Recent official
262
THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
appointments, however, should result in an early addition to the present limited fund of information.
Lepidoptera.
Carcharodus altheae. Hb. Daphnis nerii. L. Euprepia oertzeni. Ld. Ocnogyna loewii. Z. Pericyma squalens. Led. Hydrilla muculifera. Stgr. Sesamia cretica. Led. Thalpochares ostrina. Hb. Dasycorsa modesta. Stgr. Ptychopoda calunetaria. Stgr. Mecyna polygonalis, Hb.,
var. gilvata. Fabr. Scythris temper atella. Ld. Lozopera mauritanica.
Wlgshm.
DiPTERA.
Mintho isis. Wied. Bibio hortulanus. L. Ceratitis capitata. Wied. Ophyra leucostoma. Lasioptera sp. nov. Culicoides newsteadi. Austen. Bombilius medius. L.
COLEOPTERA.
Sitodrepa panicea. L. Agabus nebulosus. Forsk. Agabus biguttatus. Oliv. Philhydrus quadripunctatus .
Hbst. Dry ops auriculatus. Geoffr. Crypticus maculosus. Fairm.
Sisyphus schaeferi. L. Onthophagus cruciatus.
Menetries. Aphodius fimetarius. L. Hydrophilus caraboides. L. Aulonogyrus concinnus. Kl. Cossyphus rugosulus . Peyron. Tenebrio obscurus. L. Anoxia orientalis. Cast. Aethiessa floralis. F. Oedemera virescens. L. Cyphosoma euphratica. Lap.
et Gory. Acmaeodera despecta. Bdi. Acmaeodera Goryi. BruUe. Dasytes delagrangei. Pic. Scobicia chevrieri. Villa. Ptirms latro. Fabr. Pholicodes conicollis. Desbr. Rhabdorrynchus anchusae.
Chevr. Lixus constrictus. Bohem. Hypera variabilis. Hbst. Tychius fuscolineatus . Luc. Larinus longirostris . Gyl-
lenh. Baris traegardhi. Auriv. Hypebaeus scitulus. Er, Malachius flabellatus. Friv. Stenodera puncticollis .
Chevr. Stenodera oculifera. Ab.
Caucasica. Erch. Teratolytta dives. BruUe. Lydus algiricus. L.
INSECTS
263
Lydus suturalis. Reiche. Halosimus luteus. Waltl. Mylahris lederevi, var.
onerata. Mylahris floralis . Pall . Exosoma thoracica. Redtnb. Chrysomela polita. L.
,, regalis. Oliv.
Cassida bella. Fald. Gynandrophthalma limbata.
Stev. Omophlus syriacus. Muls.,
var. versicolor. Kirsch. Phytoecia virgula. Charp. Agapanthia violacea. Fabr, Agapanthia cardui. L. Plagionotus hohelayei. Brulle. Niphona picticornis. Muls. Calathus fuscipes. Goeze. Cicindela lunulata. Fisch. Bembidium ^-guttatum. F.
Hymenoptera. Dielis collaris. F. Acroricnus syriacus. Mocs. Tricholabioides pedunculata .
Kl. Anthidium variegatum. F. Ceratina tibialis. Mor. parvula. Sur. Eucera grisea. F. Trichofoenus pyrenaicus.
Guerin. Sycofaga sycomori. L.
Hemiptera. Scantius aegyptius. L. Pasira hasiptera. Stal.
Geocoris lineola Ramb, var.
distincta. Fieb. Anisops producta. Fieb. Velia rivulorum F. v., ven-
tralis. Put. Prionotylus brevicornis. Muls. Enoplops cornutus. H.S. Stagonosomus bipunctatus,
var. consimilis. Costa. Amaurocoris curtus. Brulle. Cor anus angulatus. Stal. Sciocoris helferi. Fieb. Eurygaster integriceps. Put. Ploiaria domestica. Scop. Holotrichus luctuosus. Muls.
et Mayet. Nemausus simplex. Horv. Stenocephalus albipes. Fabr. Sehirus bicolor. L.- Patapius spinosus. Rossi. Plinthisus hungaricus. Horv. Sehirus dubius Scop. v.
melanoptera. H. S. Eremocoris verbasci. F. Notonecta glauca. L. Lethaeus nitidus. Dougl. et
Scott. Prostemma aeneicolle. Stein.
Orthoptera. Festella festai. G. Tos. Xiphidion fuscum. F. Platycleis tesselata. Chafp. Dociostaurus genei. Ocsk.
anaiolicus. Kr. Pyrgomorpha granosa. St. Platypterna pruinosa. Br.- Watt.
264 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
Morphaeris fasciata, ah. Degeeriella socialis. Giebel.
sulcata. Thnbg. ,, decipiens.
Nitzsch, idem. Colpocephalum subaequale.
PSEUDONEUROPTERA. BurHl.
Hemianax ephippiger. Burm. Philopterus ocellatus. Scop. Lestes barbarus. Fabr. Laemobothrion titian. P.
tinnunculi. Neuroptera. Linn.
Ascalaphus syriacus. Philopterus lari. O. Fabr,
M'Lach. philopleri. Menacanthus ovatus. Piag.
§ 8. Animal, Insect and Vegetable Pests.
The animal and insect pests of common occurrence in Palestine include field mice, locusts, scales, ticks, a group of borers and fruit flies. A plague of mice and rats, affect- ing all edible crops, waxes and wanes apparently in pro- portion to the activities of the rodents' natural enemies, of which a tick is the most important. The identity and life-history of the • latter interesting parasite is at the moment under examination. Attempts to initiate epidemic disease among field mice, by means of such preparations as the Liverpool Virus, have met locally with the same lack ] of success as in other countries. Various approved formulae for poison pastes are consequently being tested for possible • adoption in a poisoning campaign.
The migratory locust, which invades Palestine at lengthy intervals, has been referred to the species Acridium migra- torium, and apparently comes from the Nubian desert, reaching this territory during the months of March and April. No record of the local occurrence of a second spfecies, Calopterius staticus, which inflicts much damage in Anatolia, has been obtainable. The most recent in- vasion of locusts took place in 1915, with a resultant loss of practically the entire season's work. To obviate, if possible, a repetition of this disaster, a campaign has been organized, combining the various methods of control.
ANIMAL, INSECT AND VEGETABLE PESTS 265
such as trenching, poisoning and the use of flame projectors.
More insidious, but none the less real, is the danger of an uncontrolled spread of scale insects, which constitute a menace to an important orange industry. The black scale {Aspidiotus aonidum), which inflicts much damage in Egypt, only occurs locally in Phoenicia and Galilee. A fumigation campaign has consequently been undertaken in the hope of extirpating this species before it spreads to the Jaffa district where the bulk of orange groves occur. Local outbreaks of the Cottony cushion scale {Icerya Purchasi) are being successfully treated with colonies of the parasitic lady-bird {Chilocorus bipustulatis) , which has been arti- ficially propagated for the purpose.
One of the most serious pests of cereal crops in Palestine is found in a moth {Scythris temper atella) , the larva of which has destroyed large areas of growing wheat. Early planting and a full rotation of crops afford the only apparent means of control. Peach, olive and melon flies cause considerable damage, but in most cases are parasitized, and this fact gives promise of a useful weapon for employment against this group of pests.
A number of parasitic weeds, including several types of Dodder {Cuscuta monogyna), Broom rape {Orobanche lavan- dtdacea) and Trixago {T. apule), assume an economic im- portance. The primitive method of cultivation and thrashing still obtaining throughout the country foster the dissemination of such parasites, which can only be con- trolled by better agricultural practice.
§ 9. Game Preservation.
A Game Preservation Commission has recently recom- mended the amendment and consolidation of sections of the Ottoman Code with reference to the protection of game and the control of vermin.
Regulations recommended for proclamation under a draft empowering Ordinance will prohibit the destruction at all
266 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
1
times of ibex, eagles, vultures, kestrels, owls, storks, cranes, hoopoes, bee-eaters and spur-wing plovers; and will afford a close-season from the ist February to the 31st August for all species of partridge, francolin, sand-grouse, hares and gazelle.
The collection and sale of eggs of all game birds will be prohibited. Rewards would be offered for the destruction of vermin as scheduled in the regulations. Game licences would be issued by Governors to residents in the district approved by District Game Commissions, and sale licences to licensed and resident butchers. All " closed forest areas " will constitute game reserves or sanctuaries.
§ 10. Flora.
The wealth of the Palestinian flora is attributable to the same causes which have endowed the country with an extraordinary variety of bird and animal life. Geographical position, variety of soil and range of climate, rainfall and elevation account for the singular richness and interest of the vegetation.
The geographical characteristics of Palestine enable the flora of the country to be divided into three distinct groups. The coast-land belongs to the region of the Mediterranean flora, similar to the flora of Cyprus, Cilicia, Spain, Greece, Sicily and North Africa.
The hill-country produces a typical oriental vegetation of the steppes; while in the depression of the Jordan valley with its intense heat, we find a sub-tropical flora resembling that of the Sudan and Abyssinia.
For the prevalent orders and for lists of the principal trees and shrubs of Palestine, see Part V., § 9.
The classical work of the plants of the country is Dr. G. Post's Flora of Syria and Palestine, published in Beirut.
PART VII.
MISCELLANEOUS.
§ I. Moslem, Orthodox and Jewish Kalendars.
Moslem Kalendar. — The Hejra, or flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, is reckoned to have taken place on the night of the 20th June, 622 a.d. The Mohammedan era, instituted seventeen years later by the Khalif 'Omar, dates from the first day of the first lunar month, Muharram (Thursday, 15th July, 622 a.d.). The years are lunar, con- sisting of twelve lunar months, each commencing with the approximate new moon, without any intercalation to keep them to the same season with respect to the sun, so that they retrograde through all the seasons in about 32^ years. They are partitioned also into cycles of 30 years, 19 of which are common years of 354 days each, and the other 11 intercalary years, having an additional day added to the last month.
The Ottoman ' Financial [Malieh) Year,' an invention of the Turkish Government, is divided into solar months, and is now about three years behind the Mohammedan era.
To find the year of the Christian era corresponding to any Mohammedan (Hejra) date, deduct 3 per cent, from the Mohammedan year and add 621-54 to the result. Thus, take A.H. 1318 :
1318 1318 1278-46
3 39-54 621-54 .
39-54 1278-46 1900-00
268
THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
Lunar Months {Shuhur Qamariyeh) :
Muharram
Safar _ _ _
Rabi' al-Awwal
Rabi' al-Thani
Jumada al-Awwal -
Jumada al-Thani -
Rajab _ - -
Sha'ban -
Ramadan
Shawwal
Zu (a)l-Qa'deh
Zu (a)l-Hejja -
- 30 days.
- 29 days.
- 30 days.
- 29 days.
- 30 days.
- 29 days.
- 30 days.
- 29 days.
- 30 days.
- 29 days.
- 30 days.
- 29 days (or, inter-
calary years, 30).
Solar Months [Shuhur Shamsiyeh)
Adar - - _ _
Nisan - - _ _
Ayar - _ _ _
Huzairan _ _ _
• Tammuz _ _ _
Ab- - -• -
Aylul - - - -
Teshrin al-Awwal - Teshrin al-Thani Kanun al-Awwal Kanun al-Thani
Shbat - - - -
The year 1341 a.h.
- March.
- April.
- May.
- June.
- . - J"iy.
- August.
- September.
- October.
- November.
- December.
- January.
- February.
began on the 25th August, 1922.
Moslem Prayers [Salat). — The hours of prayer are :
1. Salat al-Fajr, between dawn and sunrise.
2. Salat al-Duhr, when the sun has begun
decline.
3. Salat al-'Asr, midway between Nos. 2 and 4.
4. Salat al-Maghreb, a few minutes after sunset.
5. Salat al-'Esha, when the night has closed in.
to
MOSLEM KALENDAR
269
Moslem Festivals. — The principal Moslem festivals are :
Festival.
New Year -----
Yom 'Ashura (date of Noah leaving the Ark, and of the death of Husein at Kerbela)
Mauled al-Nebi (Mohammed's birth- day)
Lailat al-Raghaib (night of Moham- med's conception)
Lailat al-Me'raj (night of Moham- med's miraculous journey)
Lailat al-Baraat (" Night of De- crees," when the guardian angels receive from the Almighty tablets recording the fate of their charges in the coming year)
Ramadan -----
Lailat al-Qadr (" Night of Power," on which the requests of all wor- shippers are believed to be granted)
'Id al-Fetr (Sheker Bairam — 3 days)
'Id al-Adha (Qurban Bairam — 3 days)
^ Descent of Holy Banner (Sanjaq al-Sherif) from Jerusalem to Nebi Musa
1 Return of Banner from Nebi Musa
Date,
I Muharram.
10 Muharram.
12 Rabi' al-Awwal.
Eve of first Friday in Rajab.
27 Rajab.
15 Sha'ban.
1-30 Ramadan. 27 Ramadan.
1-3 Shawwal.
10-12 Zu al-Hejja.
Friday before Ortho- dox Good Friday.
Orthodox Maundy- Thursday.
Orthodox Kalendar. — The members of the Orthodox Eastern Church, in Palestine and elsewhere, still retain the Julian Kalendar (Old Style), and their reckoning is now thirteen days behind the rest of Europe.
1 Peculiar to Palestine; cf. Part IV., § 9.
270 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
1
Orthodox Festivals. — The principal Orthodox festivals are :
Christmas Day, New Year's Day, Epiphany or Theo- phania. Purification, Annunciation, Palm Sunday, Good Friday, Easter Day, S. George, Ascension, SS. Constantine and Helen, Whitsunday, SS. Peter and Paul, Transfigura- tion, Assumption, Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Exaltation of the Holy Cross, S. James, S. Nicolas.
Orthodox Services.— The principal services of the Orthodox Church are :
1. Matins {opOpo^), 6 a.m. to 7 a.m.
2. Eucharist (^ Oeia Xeirovpyla), 7 a.m. to 9 a.m.
3. Evensong {ea-Trepivo^), 4 V-^- to 4.30 p.m. (in
summer 5 p.m. to 5.30 p.m.).
Jewish Kalendar. — The Jewish year consists of 12 months, namely, Tishri (30), Heshvan (29), Kislev (30), Tevet (29), Shevat (30), Adar (29), Nisan (30), Eeyar (29), Sivan (30), Tamuz (29), Ab (30), Elul (29).
In enumerating the months it is usual to start with Nisan, following God's command to Moses (Exodus xii., 2).
In spite of the fact that the ordinary year is a lunar year, it is made to correspond with the solar year in the course of a cycle of 19 years by making seven years in one cycle leap-years. A leap-year is an ordinary year with Adar B (30) added. A cycle terminates with the years in the Jewish Kalendar (creation of the Universe) that are a multiple of 19. The following years in any one cycle are leap-years : Nos. i, 4, 7, 10, 12, 14, and 17. The last cycle closed in 5671.
Thus 19 solar years (including 4-5 days in leap-years) = 6939- 40 days; 19 Jewish years= 6936 days. The dif- ference of 3-4 days is made up by occasionally adding a day to Heshvan. The addition of this day incidentally serves another purpose. The Day of Atonement cannot fall either on a Friday or a Sunday, and, when it would normally fall on such a day, this additional Heshvan day puts it off until the following Saturday or Monday. When
JEWISH KALENDAR
271
more than 3-4 days have been added this way in the course of the cycle, and the same danger is in sight, a day is taken off Kislev when necessary and replaced by an additional day in Heshvan at a later date.
The year 5683 began on the 23rd September, 1922.
Jewish Festivals. — The Jewish festivals are divided into three categories : {a) days of rest; {b) festivals on which work is permissible; {c) fasts. The following is a complete list :
Date.
Category (a).
Category (b).
Category (c).
Tishri
1-2
Rosh Hash-
ana- (New
Year).
"
10
15
Yom Kippur
(Day of
Atonement)
I St Day Ta- bernacles (Sukkot).
Yom Kippur.
>>
16-21
22
8th Day Suk-
kot (Sim-
hat Tora).
2nd-7th Day
Sukkot.
^
Kislev
25 to
Hanuka
Tevet
2
(Macca-
beans).
10
A'sara Be-
tevet (Siege
of Jeru-
salem).
Shevat
15
Tu Bishevat
(Tree New
Year).
Adar
13
Ta'anit
Esther
(Fast of
Esther).
272
THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
Date.
Category {a).
Category (b).
Category (c).
Adar
>>
14
15
Purim.
Purim (in
Jerusalem
only) .
1
Nisan
15
ist Day Pass-
over.
i
"
16-20
2nd-6th Pass-
over.
1
Eeyar
21
18
7th Day Pass-
over.
Lag Laomer
(Outdoor
Day).
^
Sivan
Tamuz
Ab
6
• 9
Shavuot
(Pentecost).
Shiva' Asar
Betamuz
(Capitula-
tion of Jeru-
salem) .
Tisha' Beav (Destruction of the Tem- ple).
§ 2. Official Holidays.
The official holidays are as follows :
1 . Common to all Communities : The King's Birthday
(3rd June).
2. Moslems [cf. § i ante) :
Return from Nebi Musa of the Sanjaq al- Sherif (Holy Banner); 'Id al-Fetr (Sheker Bairam), 3 days; 'Id al-Adha (Qurban Bairam), 3 days; Mauled al-Nebi.
y
I
OFFICIAL HOLIDAYS 273
3. Christians (observed according to Gregorian or
Julian Kalendar as the case may be) :
New Year's Day; Epiphany; Good Friday; Easter Monday; Ascension Day; Whit Mon- day; Christmas Day; Boxing Day.
4. Jews :
Passover (2 days); Pentecost (i day); New Year (2 days); Atonement (i day); Taber- nacles (2 days).
• § 3. Transliteration.
The joint committee for Arabic and Hebrew translitera- tion appointed by the Government of Palestine to recom- mend a system for official use in the country has adopted the following principles :
^ {a) ARABIC.
Several recognized systems of transliteration were studied by the Committee, who, however, came to the conclusion that, having regard to the special needs of the Palestine Administration, there would have to be evolved a new system, which took into account the paramount importance of simplicity, the limitations of the typewriter, and, in general, the exigencies of administrative routine. It was felt that there was no room for the adoption of an exact and strict system involving the use of diacritical marks and conventional signs. At the same time, the Com- mittee wished so to frame their system as to ensure a standardized and uniform spelling of Arabic names in English.
The system outlined below aims, therefore, at standards of consistency and simplicity rather than of scholarly exacti- tude. It is not intended to be an ideally perfect system; but it is believed that, in admitting a certain sacrifice of precision, it achieves a greater gain in convenience,
L.P. s
74 THE HANDBOOK OF
PALESTINE m
(i) The Alphabet :
1
[N.B. — All English vowels are pronounced as in Italian.)
Ua
^ = s
.^ = b
^ = d
o = t
L = t
^ = th
k = z
C=^
•? = '
C=^
ji = gh
^=kh
^ = f
^ = d
j=q
i = z
d = k "
J = ^
J=l
J = ^
^ = m :
^ = s
^ = n .
J, = sh
j = u or w
ij = ioyy
(ii) Vowel-sounds :
-^ (damma) = u
-^ (fatha) =a
}
— (kasra) =e
Examples :
J^ = 'Ali
^\5jl
= Awqaf
^^1 = Aqsa
^Jt^.
= Yarmuk
U^ = Haifa a1)1 j^ = 'Abdallah
^JX^ = Hamdi JJ^, = Khalil
j^U = Hamed jJU = Khaled
%
TRANSLITERATION 275
(6) HEBREW.
The vowels are deemed to be pronounced as in the ItaUan alphabet.
5< = a
5 = k
^ = ei
p=kh
^ = i
D, ^ = m
K.iX = o
^ = n
X = u
D=s
l = b
^ = apostrophe after
the vowel
- i=g
3 = P
l = d
V = ts
n=h
p-q
) = v
n=r
T = z
t:^ = sh
n=h
b^=:S
b=t
n=t
(consonant) ^ = y
Sheva na' is transliterated by the addition of the " e " to the consonant. Dagesh is indicated by doubling the consonant, except in the case of ' sh,' which is underlined
to indicate the dagesh; e.g. 1^p7, " leqasher " (to bind).
Proper names, geographical or otherwise, that have a commonly accepted spelling and pronunciation, are main- tained as commonly spelt and pronounced in English, e.g. Tiberias, not Tiveria; Jerusalem, not Yerushalayim; Isaiah, not Yesha'ia.
rce
4
276 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
§ 4. Newspapers and Periodicals.
Official (periodical) publications are the Official Gazet of the Government of Palestine, published on the ist and 15th of each month in English, Arabic and Hebrew, and the Commercial Bulletin of the Department of Commerce and Industry, issued fortnightly.
The periodical publications include :
English : The Palestine Weekly.
Arabic: Al-Nafayes; Lisan al-Arab; Al-Sabah; Beit
al-Maqdes; Miraat al-Shark; Rakib Sahyun; ]
Falastin; al-Akhbar; Zaharat al-Jamil; al-Karmel; j
al-Nafir; al-Salam. 1
Hebrew : Doar Hayom; Haaretz; Hattor; Hashiloah; | Hapoel Hazair.
The provisions of the Ottoman Press Law of 1327 apply to all publications, the most important being the necessity for registration with the local authorities of all relevant particulars of the publishers and responsible editors, and the deposit of a security for good conduct. The Law pre- scribes penalties for the usual forms of Press offences of conduct and context.
§ 5. War Cemeteries in Palestine.
The War Cemeteries in Palestine are situated at Beer- sheba, Gaza, Ramleh, Deir al-Belah, Jerusalem (Mt. of Olives) (General and Indian), Sarona, Wilhelma and Haifa, and are administered from Jaffa by representatives of the Imperial War Graves Commission.
There are some 10,000 dead buried in these cemeteries, whose welfare is the special care of a local organization, the Anglo-Palestine War Graves Committee.
The sites of all the war cemeteries have been presented to the Imperial War Graves Commission by the people of Palestine, in pursuance of a resolution spontaneously
- of j
J
2er- of
WAR CEMETERIES IN PALESTINE
277
proposed by the non-official members of the Advisory Council in December, 1920. This act of generosity is commemor- ated in the inscription which it is proposed to set up at the entrance of each cemetery :
" The land on which this cemetery stands is a free gift of the people of Palestine for the perpetual resting- place of those of the Allied Armies who fell in the War of 19 1 4-1 8 and are honoured here." A Memorial Service for the fallen is conducted by the Bishop in Jerusalem at the War Cemetery on the Mount of Olives on the 15th April of each year, when offerings of flowers are laid upon the graves.
§ 6. Foreign Consuls in Palestine.
France : A Consul-General and Consul in Jerusalem;
Vice-Consuls at Haifa and Jaffa; Con- sular Agents at Nazareth, Safed and Tiberias. Greece : A Consul in Jerusalem.
Italy : A Consul-General in Jerusalem; a Vice-
Consul at Haifa; a Consular Agent at Jaffa. A Vice-Consul at Haifa. A Consul in Jerusalem. Vice-Consuls at Haifa and Jaffa; Consular
Agents at Safed and Tiberias. A Consul in Jerusalem; a Vice-Consul at Haifa.
Netherlands : Norway : Persia :
Spain :
Sweden :
United States
A Consul at Jaffa; a Vice-Consul in Jeru- salem. A Consul and Vice-Consul in Jerusalem.
278 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
7. Boy Scouts and Girl Guides.
^BBI
Boy Scouts. — There are two organizations of Boy Scouts in Palestine :
{a) The Baden-Powell Boy Scouts were started in Pales- tine in April, 191 3, and now consist of thirty troops, each about forty strong, working in most of the chief centres in the country. The Baden- Powell Boy Scouts are members of the " Boy Scouts Association " founded by Sir Robert Baden- Powell, and are in direct connexion with the Imperial Headquarters in London. The Honorary Secretary in Palestine is the Rev. R. O'Ferrall, S. George's School, Jerusalem. {b) The Jewish Boy Scouts are a similar organization, but not directly dependent on London. They were founded after the war, and are grouped in Jeru- salem, Jaffa, and Haifa, and in the larger Jewish | Colonies, in connexion with the Jewish Schools. The Association contains a number of Girl Scout troops and a Sea Scout troop. The Honorary 1 Secretary in Palestine is Mr. J. L. Bloom, c/o the Department of Education, Jerusalem. Both organizations are recognized by the High Com- missioner, who is Chief Scout for Palestine; and matters which affect the welfare of both are discussed by a joint Council, to which both send representatives.
Girl Guides. — In addition to the Girl Scout troops belong- ing to the Jewish Boy Scout Association, Girl Guides were started in Palestine in the year 1919 in direct connexion with the Girl Guide Association in England. At present there are three companies of Guides, all in Jerusalem, con- nected with the British High School for Girls and the Evelina de Rothschild School. A training camp for Guide Officers was held at Ramallah in 192 1. The Honorary Secretary in Palestine is Mrs. F. Rowlands, Jerusalem.
R.S.P.C.A. 279
§8. R.S.P.C.A.
A Jerusalem branch of the R.S.P.C.A. was founded in 1909, but ceased working in 191 5 on account of the war. Anti-cruelty work was carried out under Army auspices during the British Occupation. In 192 1 the Society was re-started under the presidency of the High Commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel.
The Veterinary Hospital situated in Mamilla Street, Jerusalem, has been taken over by the Society on lease from the Municipality, and is now entirely under the Society's own management. Only those animals are de- tained which are suffering from serious causes. A minimum charge for forage is made and treatment is provided free to animals whose owners cannot afford to pay. The Hospital is under the inspection of the veterinary officials of the Government, and is open to visitors at all times by arrange- ment with the Secretary.
The efforts of the Society are strictly limited by the amount of voluntary support that is forthcoming from the public.
The Honorary Treasurer is Mrs. K. L. Reynolds, S. George's School, Jerusalem.
\
APPENDIX
MANDATE FOR PALESTINE
The Council of the League of Nations :
Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have agreed, for the purpose of giving effect to the provisions of Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, to entrust to a Mandatory selected by the said powers the administration of the territory of Palestine, which formerly belonged to the Turkish Empire, within such boundaries as may be fixed by them; and
Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have also agreed that the Mandatory should be responsible for putting into effect the declaration originally made on November 2, 191 7, by the Government of His Britannic Majesty, and adopted by the said Powers, in favour of the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing should be done which might prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non- Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country; and
Whereas recognition has thereby been given to the historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine and to the grounds for reconstituting their national home in that country; and
Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have selected His Britannic Majesty as the Mandatory for Palestine; and
Whereas the mandate in respect of Palestine has been formulated in the following terms and submitted to the Council of the League for approval; and
280
APPENDIX 281
Whereas His Britannic Majesty has accepted the mandate in respect of Palestine and undertaken to exercise it on behalf of the League of Nations in conformity with the following provisions; and
Whereas by the aforementioned Article 22 (paragraph 8), it is provided that the degree of authority, control or administration, to be exercised by the Mandatory not having been previously agreed upon by the Members of the League shall be explicitly defined by the Council of the League of Nations;
Confirming the said mandate, defines its terms as follows :
Article i. The Mandatory shall have full powers of legislation and of administration, save as they may be limited by the terms of this mandate;
Article 2. The Mandatory shall be responsible for placing the country under such political, administrative and economic conditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home, as laid down in the preamble, and the development of self-governing institutions, and also for safeguarding the civil and religious rights of all the inhabi- tants of Palestine, irrespective of race and religion.
Article 3. The Mandatory shall, so far as circumstances permit, encourage local autonomy.
Article 4. An appropriate Jewish agency shall be recognised as a public body for the purpose of advising and co-operating with the Administration of Palestine in such economic, social and other matters as may affect the establishment of the Jewish national home and the interests of the Jewish population in Palestine and, subject always to the control
282 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
of the Administration, to assist and take part in the develop- ment of the country.
The Zionist organisation, so long as its organisation and constitution are in the opinion of the Mandatory appro- priate, shall be recognised as such agency. It shall take steps in consultation with His Britannic Majesty's Govern- ment to secure the co-operation of all Jews who are willing to assist in the establishment of the Jewish national home.
Article 5.
The Mandatory shall be responsible for seeing that no Palestine territory shall be ceded or leased to, or in any way placed under the control of the Government of any foreign Power.
Article 6.
The Administration of Palestine, while ensuring that the rights and position of other sections of the population are not prejudiced, shall facilitate Jewish immigration under suitable conditions and shall encourage in co-operation with the Jewish agency referred to in Article 4 close settle- ment by Jews on the land, including State lands and waste lands not required for public purposes.
. Article 7. The Administration of Palestine shall be responsible for enacting a nationality law. There shall be included in this law provisions framed so as to facilitate the acquisition of Palestinian citizenship by Jews who take up their per- manent residence in Palestine.
Article 8.
The privileges and immunities of foreigners, including the benefits of consular jurisdiction and protection as formerly enjoyed by Capitulation or usage in the Ottoman Empire, shall not be applicable to Palestine.
Unless the Powers whose nationals enjoyed the afore- mentioned privileges and immunities on August i, 1914,
APPENDIX 283
shall have previously renounced the right to their re- establishment, or shall have agreed to their non-application for a specified period, these privileges and immunities shall, at the expiration of the mandate, be immediately re- established in their entirety or with such modifications as may have been agreed upon between the Powers concerned.
Article 9.
The Mandatory shall be responsible for seeing that the judicial system established in Palestine shall assure to foreigners, as well as to natives, a complete guarantee of their rights.
Respect for the personal status of the various peoples and communities and for their religious interests shall be fully guaranteed. In particular, the control and adminis- tration of Waqfs shall be exercised in accordance with religious law and the dispositions of the founders.
Article 10.
Pending the making of special extradition agreements relating to Palestine, the extradition treaties in force between the Mandatory and other foreign Powers shall apply to Palestine.
Article ii.
The Administration of Palestine shall take all necessary measures to safeguard the interests of the community in connection with the development of the country, and, subject to any international obligations accepted by the Mandatory, shall have full power to provide for public ownership or control of any of the natural resources of the country or of the public works, services and utilities estab- lished or to be established therein. It shall introduce a land system appropriate to the needs of the country, having regard, among other things, to the desirability of promoting the close settlement and intensive cultivation of the land.
The Administration may arrange with the Jewish agency mentioned in Article 4 to construct or operate, upon fair
284 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
and equitable terms, any public works, services and utilities, and to develop any of the natural resources of the country, in so far as these matters are not directly undertaken by the Administration. Any such arrangements shall provide that no profits distributed by such agency, directly or indirectly, shall exceed a reasonable rate of interest on the capital, and any further profits shall be utilised by it for the benefit of the country in a manner approved by the Administration .
Article 12.
The Mandatory shall be entrusted with the control of the foreign relations of Palestine, and the right to issue exequaturs to consuls appointed by. foreign Powers. He shall also be entitled to afford diplomatic and consular protection to citizens of Palestine when outside its terri- torial limits.
Article 13.
All responsibility in connection with the Holy Places and religious buildings or sites in Palestine, including that of preserving existing rights and of securing free access to the Holy Places, religious buildings and sites and the free exercise of worship, while ensuring the requirements of public order and decorum, is assumed by the Mandatory, who shall be responsible solely to the League of Nations in all matters connected herewith, provided that nothing in this Article shall prevent the Mandatory from entering into such arrangements as he may deem reasonable with the Administration for the purposes of carrying the provisions of this Article into effect; and provided also that nothing in this Mandate shall be constructed as conferring upon the Mandatory authority to interfere with the fabric or the management of purely Moslem sacred shrines, the immunities of which are guaranteed.
Article 14. A special Commission shall be appointed by the Mandatory to study, define and determine the rights and claims in
APPENDIX 285
connection with the Holy Places and the rights and claims relating to the different religious communities in Palestine. The method of nomination, the composition and the functions of this Commission shall be submitted to the Council of the League for its approval, and the Commission shall not be appointed or enter upon its functions without the approval of the Council.
Article 15.
The Mandatory shall see that complete freedom of conscience and the free exercise of all forms of worship, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, are ensured to all. No discrimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants of Palestine on the ground of race, religion or language. No person shall be excluded from Palestine on the sole ground of his religious belief.
The right of each community to maintain its own schools for the education of its own members in its own language, while conforming to such educational requirements of a general nature as the Administration may impose, shall not be denied or impaired.
Article 16. The Mandatory shall be responsible for exercising such supervision over religious or eleemosynary bodies of all faiths in Palestine as may be required for the maintenance of public order and good government. Subject to such supervision no measures shall be taken in Palestine to obstruct or interfere with the enterprise of such bodies or to discriminate against any representative or member of them on the ground of his religion or nationality.
Article 17.
The Administration of Palestine may organise on a
voluntary basis the forces necessary for the preservation
of peace and order, and also for the defence of the country,
subject, however, to the supervision of the Mandatory, but
286 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
shall not use them for purposes other than those above specified save with the consent of the Mandatory. Except for such purposes, no military, naval or air forces shall be raised or maintained by the Administration of Palestine.
Nothing in this article shall preclude the Administration of Palestine from contributing to the cost of the maintenance of the forces of the Mandatory in Palestine.
The Mandatory shall be entitled at all times to use the roads, railways and ports of Palestine for the movement of armed forces and the carriage of fuel and supplies.
Article i8.
The Mandatory shall see that there is no discrimination in Palestine against the nationals of any State Member of the League of Nations (including companies incorporated under its laws) as compared with those of the Mandatory or of any foreign State in matters concerning taxation, commerce or navigation, the exercise of industries or pro- fessions, or in the treatment of merchant vessels or civil aircraft. Similarly there shall be no discrimination in Palestine against goods originating in or destined for any of the said States, and there shall be freedom of transit under equitable conditions across the mandated area.
Subject as aforesaid and to the other provisions of this mandate, the Administration of Palestine may on the advice of the Mandatory impose such taxes and customs duties as it may consider necessary, and take such steps as it may think best to promote the development of the natural resources of the country and to safeguard the interests of the population. It may also, on the advice of the Mandatory, conclude a special customs agreement with any State, the territory of which in 1914 was wholly included in Asiatic Turkey or Arabia,
Article 19. The Mandatory shall adhere on behalf of the Adminis- tration to any general international conventions already existing, or which may be concluded hereafter with the
APPENDIX 287
approval of the Leagii-e of Nations, respecting the slave traffic, the traffic in arms and ammunition, or the traffic in drugs, or relating to commercial equality, freedom of transit and naviga'tion, aerial navigation and postal, telegraphic and wireless communication or literary, artistic or industrial property.
Article 20.
The Mandatory shall co-operate on behalf of the Adminis- tration of Palestine, so far as religious, social and other conditions may permit, in the execution of any common policy adopted by the League of Nations for preventing and combating disease, including diseases of plants and animals.
Article 21.
The Mandatory shall secure the enactment within twelve months from this date, and shall ensure the execution of a law of Antiquities based on the following rules. This law shall ensure equality of treatment in the matter of excavations and archaeological research to the nationals of all States, Members of the League of Nations.
I.
" Antiquity " means any construction or any product of human activity earlier than the year 1700 a.d.
The law for the protection of antiquities shall proceed by encouragement rather than by threat.
Any person who, having discovered an antiquity without being furnished with the authorisation referred to in paragraph 5, reports the same to an official of the competent Department, shall be rewarded according to the value of the discovery.
3-
No antiquity may be disposed of except to the competent Department, unless this Department renounces the acquisi- tion of any such antiquity.
288 THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
1
Any person who maliciously or negligently destroys or damages an antiquity shall be liable to a penalty to be fixed.
5-
No clearing of ground or digging with the object of finding antiquities shall be permitted, under penalty of fine, except to persons authorised by the competent Depart- ment.
6.
Equitable terms shall be fixed for expropriation, temporary or permanent, of lands which might be of historical or archaeological interest.
7-
Authorisation to excavate shall only be granted to persons who show sufficient guarantees of archaeological experience. The Administration of Palestine shall not, in granting these authorisations, act in such a way as to exclude scholars of any nation without good grounds.
8.
The proceeds of excavations may be divided between the excavator and the competent Department in a proportion fixed by that Department. If division seems impossible for scientific reasons, the excavator shall receive a fair indemnity in lieu of a part of the find.
Article 22.
English, Arabic and Hebrew shall be the official languages of Palestine. Any statement or inscription in Arabic on stamps or money in Palestine shall be repeated in Hebrew and any statement or inscription in Hebrew shall be repeated in Arabic.
Article 23.
The Administration of Palestine shall recognise the Holy days of the respective communities in Palestine as legal days of rest for the members of such communities.
APPENDIX 289
Article 24. The Mandatory shall make to the Council of the League of Nations an annual report to the satisfaction of the Council as to the measures taken during the year to carry out the provisions of the mandate. Copies of all laws and regulations promulgated or issued during the year shall be communicated with the report.
Article 25. In the territories lying between the Jordan and the eastern boundary of Palestine as ultimately determined, the Mandatory shall be entitled, with the consent of the Council of the League of Nations, to postpone or withhold application of such provisions of this mandate as he may consider inapplicable to the existing local conditions, and to make such provision for the administration of the terri- tories as he may consider suitable to those conditions, provided no action shall be taken which is inconsistent with the provisions of Article 15, 16, and 18.
Article 26.
The Mandatory agrees that if any dispute whatever should arise between the Mandatory and another Member of the League of Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.
Article 27.
The consent of the Council of the League of Nations is required for any modification of the terms of this mandate.
Article 28. In the event of the termination of the mandate hereby conferred upon the Mandatory, the Council of the League of Nations shall make such arrangements as may be deemed L,P. TP
290
THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
1
necessary for safeguarding in perpetuity, under guarantee of the League, the rights secured by Articles 13 and 14, and shall use its influence for securing, under the guarantee of the League, that the Government of Palestine will fully honour the financial obligations legitimately incurred by the Administration of Palestine during the period of the mandate, including the rights of public servants to pensions or gratuities.
The present instrument shall be deposited in original in the archives of the League of Nations and certified copies shall be forwarded by the Secretary General of the League of Nations to all Members of the League.
Done at London the twenty-fourth day of July, One thousand nine hundred and twenty- two.
INDEX
'Abbasids, 14, 69.
'Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, 23,
73, 106-107. 'Abd al-Melek, 68-69/ 79, 9^,
92. 'Abdu'l Hamid II., 24, 35. Abyssinians, 33, 43, 45, 94, 99. Acre, 5, 18-20, 22, 23, 28, 42,
50, 60, 73, 105-107, 196, 204. Administration, System of,
133-137- Administrative divisions, 28,
134-135- Agriculture and Forestry, 186-
194- Ain Karem, 88-89. Ain Shems, 61, 76-77. Allenby, Lord, 24, 27, 82. 'American Colony,' the, 48. Animals, Society for the Pre- vention of Cru-elty to, 279. Antiquities, Department of,
74-75. 83, 104, 131. Aqsa, Mosque of al-, see Haram
al-Sherif. Arabs, 13-15, 32, 34-35, 203. Aramaic, 10, 35, 57. Archaeology and Art, 60-77. Architecture —
Christian, 63-67.
Greek and Roman, '62-63, 103.
Jewish, 62, 63, 96-97.
Moslem, 67-74, 88. Area, i.
Armenians, 33, 43-44, 94, 96,
97. 99- Arrub, 29, 99, 196. Ascalon, 14, 18, 61, 63, 75, 77,
81, 83, 106. Ashdod, see Esdud. Assizes of Jerusalem, the, 16. Athlit, 104, 198.
Baha'is, 33, 58-59, 105, 107. Baldwin I., 16, 80, 87, 97, 104. Baldwin II., 16, 79, loi. Balfour Declaration, the, 25-
27. 52. Banks, 159-160. Beduin, 34-35. i3o,i39-i4o.i75- Beersheba, 28, 84, 276. Beisan (Bethshan), 7, 60, 75,
103. Beit Jibrin, 62, 75, 86. Belus, River, 107. Bethlehem, 47, 64, 98-99, 240. Bibars, 21, 71, 83, 87, 105, 107. Birds, 243-256. Blood Feud Commissions, 139-
140. Blyth, Bishop, 46-48. Books of Reference, 123-125. Bosnians, 33, 36, 105. Boy Scouts and Girl Guides,
29, 278. Byzantine Empire, the, 13, 15,
66, 79, 87.
Caenaculum, the, 64, 96.
291
T3
ig2
THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
Caesarea, 5, 13, 14, 17, 40, 63,
104-105, 106, 198. Cana, 108. Canaanites, 6, 61. Capernaum, 63, 75, 109. Capitulations, the, 139, 282. Captivity, the Babylonia,n, 9,
89, 99. Carmel, Mt., 2, 5, 60, 104, 231,
241. Carmelites, 43, 104. Castles, Crusaders', 20-21, 66,
104, 107. Circassians, 33, 35-36, 203. Climate, 208-209. Coins, 77-80. Colonies, Jewish, 55-56. Commerce and Industry, 169-
170, 276. Companies, Limited Liability,
142-143. Constantine the Great, 63-64,
95. 98.
Consuls, Foreign, 277. Co-operative Societies, 142-143. Copts, 33, 45, 94, 99. Costume, 85, 98. Crusades, 15-21, 63, 82, 83, 85,
87, 91, 92, 93, 101-103, 105,
108. Currency, 158-159. Customs Department and
Dues, 160-168. Cyprus, 16, 20-21, 44, 47, 59,
61, 76, 96, 266.
David, King, 7-8, 84-85, 89,
96, 98.
Dead Sea, the, 4-5, 125, 198, 230, 234-238, 240-241.
Decapolis, the, 11.
Departments, Government, 1 36.
Dome of the Rock, see Harain al-Sherif.
Dominicans, Biblical School of the, 43, 67, 75, 124, 131.
Druses, 33, 57-58, 108, 203.
Education, 173-180,
Emmaus, 88.
Enab, 88.
England, Church of, in Pales- tine, 33, 45-48, 95, 97-98, 179-
Esdraelon (Jezreel), Plain of, 22, 60, 103.
Esdud (Ashdod), 60, 81, 84.
Eudocia, Empress, 65, 82, 95.
Executive Council, 136.
Exhibitions, 132.
Fatimites, 15, 69, 79, 87.
Festivals, 130, 269-273.
Fishes, /%6o-26i.
Flora, 266.
Forestry, see Agriculture.
Franciscans, 42-43, 89, 96, 108,
131-
Frederick I. (Barbarossa) , Em- peror, 17.
Frederick II., Emperor, 18.
Frontiers, i, 162-163.
Galilee, 49, 63, 195, 239. Galilee, Sea of, see Tiberias,
Lake of. Gam.e Preservation, 265-266. Gath, see Tel al-Safi. Gaza, 5, 14, 24, 28, 33, 47, 60,
63, 74, 81-83, 196, 233, 276. Gendarmerie, 203. Geography, 1-5. Geology, 229-238. Georgians, 94, 98. Gethsemane, 65, 75, 97. Gezer, see Tel al- jezer. Godfrey de Bouillon, 16.
Haifa, 5, 28, 33, 47, 49, 104,
122, 160, 196, 202. Haram al-Sherif, 29, 68-69, 72,
91-93. 130, 131- Harbours, 5, 196-198. Hattin, Battle of, 17, 69, 108. Health, Public, 204-208. Hebrew, revival of, 53-54.
INDEX
293
Hebron, 28, 33, 37, 39, 84-85. Hejaz Railway, the, 116, 199,
228. Heraclius, Emperor, 13, 14. Herod the Great, 11, 62-63, 75.
83, 89, 100, I02, 125. Herzl, Theodor, 25. Hezekiah, King, 9, 89. Holidays, Public, 272-273. Holy Grail, the, 105. Holy Sepulchre, Church of the, 64, 66, 90, 93-95. 130.
Order of the, 42. Hospices, 122. Hospitals, 204-205. Hotels, no, 122. Huleh, Lake, 4, 5, 109, 198,
233-
Ibrahim, Pasha, 23, 39, 105,
125. Idumaeans, 11-12, 87. Immigration, Jewish, 52-53,
171-172. Industries, see Commerce. Insects, 261-265. Islam in Palestine, 36-39, 140-
141, 268-269. Israel and Judah, Kingdoms
of, 7-9, lOI. Israelites, early history of, 6-7,
60.
Jabneh, see Yebna. Jacobites, 33, 43, 44-45, 94.
99. Jaffa, 5, 17, 24, 28, 31, 33,
45, 47, 49. 86-87, 122, 196,
233- Jericho, 17, 99-100, 122. Jerome, S., 82, 99. Jerusalem, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16,
17, 24. 27-30, 33, 37, 47, 49,
50, 52-53, 63, 68-74, 89-98,
122. Jerusalem, Latin Kingdom of,
15, 19-20, 41, 105.
Jews, 6-12, 25-27, 32, 49-56, 77-78, 84, 95, 105, 108-109, 141-142, 203, 270-273, 278.
Jezzar Pasha, 22, 105-107.
Jordan River and Valley, 4-5, 34, 100, 193, 232-238, 266.
Joshua, 83, 84, 99, loi.
Juhan the Apostate, 12.
Justice, Administration of, 137-143. 150-152.
Justinian, 65, 82, 92, 98, loi.
Kalendar —
Jewish, 270-272.
Moslem, 267-268.
Orthodox, 269. Khwarizmians, 18, 82. Kishon, River, 5, 107.
Lachish, see Tel al-Hesi.
Lakes, 4-5, 198.
Land Tenure and Courts, 140,
152-155, 181-185. Languages, Official, 31. Latin Church in Palestine, 33,
40, 41-43, 94 . 97. 99- Latrun, 88. Law and Law Courts, see
Justice, Administration of. Legislation, 143. Legislative Council, 136-137. Live-stock, 194-195. Louis IX., S., 18. Ludd (Lydda), 71,- 87-88.
Maccabees, lo-ii, 77, 87, 102. Madaba mosaic, 66, 90. Magharbeh, 33, 36. Mamelukes, 21, 71-73. Mammalia, 242-243. Mandate, British, Palestine
under, 24-31; text of, 280
sqq. Mar Saba, 3, 99, 231. Medical Department, 204-208. Megiddo, 60-61, 'j^, 103. Meiron, 109.
294
THE HANDBOOK OF PALESTINE
Melchites, 33, 43, 108. Melisende, Queen, 97. Metawileh, 22, 33, 36, 58. Meteorological data, 208-210. Mineral resources, 238-241. Mineral springs, see Springs. Mishna, the, 49, 109. Mohammed 'Ali, 23. Montfort, Castle of, 107. Moslem Sharia Council and
Courts, 37-38, 140-141. Motor-car services, 11 8- 119,
121. Mountains, 3. Municipalities, 28, 140, 224-
226. Museums, 75-77, 83.
Nablus (Shechem), 8, 17, 28, 33, 47, .56-57. 101-102, 231.
Napoleon I., 22, 81, 87, 105- 106.
Napoleon III., 23, 97.
Nazareth, 28, 47, 107-108, 122.
Nebi Musa, Feast of, 130, 269, 272.
Newspapers, 276.
Olives, cultivation of, 193-194.
Olives, Mt. of, 64, 96, 97, 276.
'Omar al-Daher, 22, 105, 108, 109.
'Omar, KhaUf, 40, 66, 82, 89, . 91.
Omayyads, 14-15, 68-69, 88.
Oranges, 55, 87, 171.
Order of S. John of Jerusalem, 20-21, 105-106.
, English, 48, 205.
Orthodox Patriarchate of Jeru- salem, 33, 39-41. 94. 97. 99-
Palestine Exploration Fund,
75, 83, 84, 86, 90. Palestine, meaning of term, 5. Parliamentary Papers, 226-227. Passport Regulations, 111-113.
Petroleum, 240. PhiHstines, 6, 75, 81-83, 86. Phoenicians, 6, 62, 86. Police, 28, 202-204. Population, 2, 32-33. Postage Stamps, 217-222. Postal Services, 210-217. Prisons, 203-204. Pro-Jerusalem Society, the, 29,
92, 93. 95. 131-132. Public Works, 195-196,
Qala'un, Sultan, 20, 21. Qaraites, 53. Qarantal, Jebel, 100. Quarantine, 207-208.
Rafa, 81, 84.
Railways, 115-118, 198-202,
228. Rainfall, 209. Ramleh, 33, 47, 50, 72, 88, 130,
233. 276. Reptilia, 256-259. Revenue and Expenditure,
157-158. Richard Coeur-de-Lion, 17, 87,
107. ' River of Egypt,' the, 5, 80. Rivers, 5.
Roads, 119-122, 195. Romans, 11-12, 87.
Safed, 22, 28, 33, 50-51, 109,
233- Saladin, 17, 41, 69-70, 95, Samaria (Sebastieh), 8, 63, 75,
102-103. Samaritans, 10, 14, 32, 56-57,
101-102, 108. Samuel, Sir Herbert, 30, 278,
279. Sarafend, 50, 58. Schools, see Education. Seljuqs, 15, 87. Shipping, 1 1 3- 1 15, 225. Shrines, Moslem, 37.
INDEX
295
Simon bar Cochba, 12, 49, 78. Smith, Sir Sidney, 22, 106. Solomon, King, 8, 82, 89, 91. Solomon, Pools of, 99, 196. Springs, Mineral, 109, 125-126. Stone, Building, 238-239. Suleyman the Magnificent, 21,
39. 91, 95- Sunrise and Sunset, 129. Syrians. 32, 34-35.
Ta'anach, 60, 103.
Tabor, Mt., 108.
Tantura, 198.
Taxation, 144-157.
Tel al-'Amarna tablets, 6, 60,
88. Tel al-Hesi (Lachish), 61, 86. Tel al- Jezer (Gezer), 61, 76, 88. Telal-Safi (Gath), 76, 81, 83-84. Tel Aviv, 87, 122. Telegraphs and Telephones,
222-223. Templar Community, German,
48-49, 87. Templar, Knights, 20, 104, 109. Temple, the Jewish, 8, 10, 12,
62, 87, 89. Terra Santa, Custodia of, 42-43. Tiberias, Lake of, i, 4, 61, 198,
235- , Town, 22, 28, 49, 50, 75,
108-109, 122, 125-126, 235. Tithes, see Taxation.
Titus, 12, 78, 89.
Tobacco, 150, 165.
Trade Marks and Patents, 143.
Trans- jordania, i, 50, 34, 36,
41, 62-63, 109. ^62, 222, 227-
228, 239. Transliteration, Arabic and
Hebrew, 273-275. Transport, 122. Turks, 21-25, 73-
Uniate Churches, 33, 43. Usdum, Jebel, 230, 240-241.
Venice, 18, 52. Vespasian, 78, loi, 108. Via Dolorosa, the, 29, 70. Virgin, Tomb of the, 90, 97.
Wadi al-Sant, 13, 83. Wailing Wall, the, 90, 95. Waqfs, 37-39, 183. War Cemeteries, 276-277. Water-supply of Jerusalem, 29,
89, 99, 196. Weights and Measures, 126-
129.
Yebna (Jabneh), 49, 71-72, 84. Yemenite Jews, 52-53. Yiddish, 52, 53.
Zedekiah, King, 9, 89. Zionism, 25-27, 53, 56, 87, 180.
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Imperial Ottoman Bank
ESTABLISHED 1863
Authorized Capital, - - L.Stg. 10,000,000 Paid up Capital, - - L.Stg. 5,000,000
Reserve, - - - - L.Stg. 1,250,000
Branches in Palestine : JERUSALEM, JAFFA, HAIFA, NABLUS.
Sub-Branches: BETHLEHEM AND RAMALLAH.
The Imperial Ottoman Bank transacts every descrip- tion of British and Foreign Banking Business. With its seventy branch offices all over the East and its correspondents in every important town in the world, it offers special facihties to travellers for the cashing of Circular Notes, Letters of Credit, etc. It has a specially organized Merchandise Department.
London Office, - 26 and 27 THROGMORTON ST., E.G. 2 Paris Office, - 7 RUE MEYERBEER Head Office, - CONSTANTINOPLE
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NATIONAL BANK OF EGYPT
HEAD OFFICE: CAIRO
Governor : B. HORNSBY, C.B.E.
Fully paid Capital, Reserve Fund, -
^3,000,000 ^2,200,000
London Agency :
6 AND 7 King William Street, E.C.4
Branches in all the Principal Towns in EGYPT and the SUDAN
ALLENBY HOTEL
JERUSALEM
(Ex "Fast")
Situated in a very select part near the Jaffa Gate and the Post-Office.
ENTIRELY RENOVATED &> FITTED WITH . . THE LATEST SANITARY APPLIANCES . .
STRICTLY FIRST CLASS HOTEL.
150 Beds. Bathrooms. Electric Light.
FRENCH CUISINE.
Music at Tea and Dinner daily. Small Dances every Saturday evening.
EVERY FIRST CLASS COMFORT.
DRAGOMAN MEETS ALL TRAINS.
MODERATE TERMS.
Special Guides, who are at the disposal of visitors, are attached to the Hotel.
THE GRAND HOTELS CO. OF EGYPT
CAIRO . .
THE
CONTINENTAL-SAVOY
The most up-to-date and best situated Hotel in town. Entirely Renewed. Overlooking Ezbekieh Gardens. Opera Square. Famous Terraces. 400 Rooms. 200 Bathrooms.
Cairo s Fashionable Griil-Room Restaurant,
Daily Concerts. Weekly Dances.
OPEN ALL THE YEAR ROUND.
MENA HOUSE HOTEL
At the foot of the Pyramids. The Ideal Hotel out of town.
HEALTH RESORT NEAR CAIRO.
HELOUAN
SULPHUR BATHS AND THERMAL ESTABLISHMENT.
GRAND HOTEL, HELOUAN
STRICTLY FIRST CLASS. 6
WELL RECOMMENDED
CENTRAL HOTEL S. JOHN HOTEL
JERUSALEM
P.O. Box 177
Telegraphic Address "AMDURSKY," Jerusalem. Telephone No. 154.
Near Jaffa Gate oppo- Situated in the modern
site David's Tower. section of the Old
Verandas looking over City. Windows over-
the most Historical looking the Church of
Sites. the Holy Sepulchre.
FIRST CLASS HOTEL
European Kitchen Electric Light
Bath Rooms Very Comfortable
Hotel Agents and Porters meet all trains
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TIBERIAS
ON THE SEA OF GALILEE
PALESTINE
HOTEL TIBERIAS
Proprietrix :
MRS. GROSSMAN
NICELY SITUATED EUROPEAN HOUSE
CLEAN AND AIRY BEDROOMS
GOOD FOOD AND GOOD DRINKS
ATTENTIVE SERVICE
Beautiful view on the Lake and surrounding hills
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KHEDIVIAL MAIL LINE
Managing Agents : CURWEN & CO., ALEXANDRIA
CYPRUS MAIL LINE (subsidised by the British Government) , Royal Mail steamers leave Alexandria on the ist, nth and 2ist of each month at 4 p.m., and Port Said on the 3rd, 13th and 23rd at 9 a.m., for Famagusta, Larnaca, and Limassol, returning to Alexandria via Port Said.
SUDAN MAIL LINE. Mail steamers leave Suez on the ist and nth of each month at 5 p.m. for Tor, Yambo, Jeddah, Port Sudan and Suakin, returning to Suez via the same ports.
Mail steamers leave Suez on the 21st of each month at 5 p.m. for Tor, Wedj, Jeddah, Port Sudan and Suakin, returning to Suez via the same ports and calling at Yambo after Jeddah.
GREECE-TURKEY LINE. Steamers leave Alexandria every alternate Wednesday for Piraeus, Smyrna, Mitylene and Constantinople, returning to Alexandria via the same ports. This service will shortly be made weekly from Alexandria.
SYRIAN-PALESTINE LINE. Steamers leave Alexandria about every fifteen days at 3 p.m., and from Port Said one day later at 6 p.m., for Jaffa, Caifa, Beyrout, Tripoli, Lattakia and Mersina, returning via Alexandretta and the above ports.
SYRIAN-CONSTANTINOPLE LINE. Passenger steamers leave Alexandria and Port Said twice monthly, and cargo steamers (with limited First-Class accommodation) fortnightly, for Jaffa, Caifa, Beyrout, TripoU, Lattakia, Alexandretta, Mersina, Adalia, Rhodes, Chios, Smyrna, Mitylene, Dardanelles and Constantinople, returning via the same ports.
ADEN MAIL LINE. Steamers leave Suez monthly for Wedj,
Yambo, Jeddah, Port Sudan, Suakin, Massowah, Hodeidah
and Aden, returning via the same ports.
(Line is temporarily suspended. Will be resumed in
September 1922.)
All passenger steamers carry Doctors, and are fitted with electric light and fans.
For further particulars regarding dates of sailing, passenger fares and rates of freight, apply to the Company's Agencies, at Alexandria, Port Said, Suez and all ports of call. For passenger fares and dates of sailings only apply to Cox's Shipping Agency, Cairo; Thos. Cook & Son (Egypt) Ltd., and other Tourist Agencies.
Agents in Palestine : JAFFA - - Mr. A. Cassar. Cargo and Passengers.
CAIFA - - SoLiMAN Bey Nassif. do.
JERUSALEM - The Palestine Passengers only.
Express Co. Ltd,
The Palestine Express Company Limited
JERUSALEM, JAFFA, HAIFA, ALEXANDRIA, BEYROUT
Foreign Agencies : Vienna, London, New York Telegraphic Address for all Branches : PECOLD Codes : A. B.C. 5TH and 6th Editions — Bentley's Code Bankers : The Anglo -Palestine Company Limited
TOURING OFFICE
STEAMSHIP AGENCY
RAILWAY TICKETS
AND
Independent and conducted Tours throughout Palestine, Syria and Egypt. Special arrangements for parties interested in the Jewish historical places and colonies.
Tickets booked for all Steamship Companies. Official appointed Agents of the White Star Line and the International Mercantile Marine Company.
Agents of the Palestine Railways. Tickets booked for the Egyptian State Railways, and the principal trains in Europe and America.
Goods of all kinds forwarded and shipped, stored and insured. Ad- vances against goods C.O.D. col- lected. Luggage stored and insured.
effected against all risks by land, sea and air. Luggage Insurance for accompanied baggage by ready policies. General Agents to :
The Guardian Eastern Insurance Co., London.
The Mondial Marine Insurance Co.
The European Goods and Luggage Insurance Co.
Publishers of Guide Books.
NEW YORK AGENCY: THE PALESTINE PILGRIMAGE,
52 E. loTH Street.
Cables : Oleyregel, New York — Bentley's Code.
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FORWARDING SHIPPING :
INSURANCE
S. BARAKAT TOURS
Intending visitors to the Holy Land could not consult their own interests better than by arranging for their trips with
SELIM BARAKAT,
JAFFA, PALESTINE.
Independent Tourist Contractor of
EASTERN TOURS
FOR
SYRIA, PALESTINE AND EGYPT.
S. Barakat, who has had years of training and experi- ence with personally conducted parties, places at the disposal of his patrons the knowledge and experience of half a life time on arranging trips through the Holy Land, Syria and Egypt for any number of parties desired.
CLIFF HOTEL, JAFFA
On the sea, yet located in most commanding position, with magnificent view from all rooms. Excellent cuisine, safe and comfortable bathing. Admirably suited for families and week-end parties.
SELIM BARAKAT, Proprietor.
S. CATONI & SONS
STEAMSHIP AGENTS AND MERCHANTS
Telegrams: "OCTAVE," Haifa
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Agents at Haifa and Acre for : THE PRINCE LINE, LTD. ROYAL NETHERLANDS STEAMSHIP CO. ARMEMENT ADOLF DEPPE SWENSKA ORIENT LINE THE UNITED AMERICAN LINES, INC.
Codes used : A. B. C. 5TH Edition. SCOTT'S CODE, ioth Edition
OCTAVE CATONI
STEAMSHIP AGENT & INSURANCE BROKER
Telegrams: "MESSAGERIE," Haifa
Agent for : CiE. DES MESSAGERIES MARITIMES COMITE CENTRAL des ARMATEURS de FRANC: AMERICA LEVANT LINE
Commissaire cl'Avaries clu COMITE DES ASSUREURS MARITIMES de PARIS
Codes used : A. B. C. 5TH Edition. SCOTT'S CODE, ioth Edition.
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NEAR EAST TRAVEL BUREAU
Do you wish to visit the
HOLY LAND ^ SYRIA
EGYPT ^ THE NILE
& GREECE
with Comfort, Economy, and Success?
Before deciding on your tour it will be worth your while to communicate with
D. N. TADROS,
Tourist and Passenger Agent
(Established 1892)
Telesrams: p q g^^ j27,
1 adros 1 ours,
Jerusalem. JERUSALEM
Excursions arranged at fixed rates in above Countries. Passages secured by all Lines. Railway tickets issued. Forwarding and Insurance of baggage. Foreign money exchanged. Hotel accommodation reserved. Private automobiles supplied.
Specially Conducted parties organized from England & America
Offices and Agencies :
Jaffa, Jerusalem, Haifa, Beyrout, Damascus, Cairo, Port Said,
Alexandria, Athens, Constantinople, Naples, Marseilles, Paris,
London and New York.
L.P. 13 U
MESSAGERIES MARITIMES
- French Mail Line ::
Luxe Steamers from 19,000 tons
EGYPT LINE
Marseilles, Alexandria, Port-Said, Jaffa, Haifa, Beyrout, and vice versa.
NORTH MEDITERRANEAN LINE
Marseilles Naples Piraeus Smyrna
Constantinople Rhodes or Vathy Beyrout
Haifa Jaffa and vice versa.
FAR EASTERN LINE
India China Japan Ceylon Australia and East coast of Africa.
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