The Incas of Peru/Chapter 12

by Clements Robert Markham

CHAPTER XII

TTAHUA-NTIN-SUYU

I

Cunti-suyu

The official name of the Empire of the Incas was Ttahua-ntin-suyu, the word ttahua meaning four, ntin a collective plural, and suyu province. 'The four combined provinces,' with reference to the dominions west, north, south, and east of the central land of the Incas. The western division was called Cunti-suyu, and included the country from the Apurimac to the maritime cordillera and the coast. Chinchay-suyu was the northern division including Huamanca, the valley of the Jauja, Haunuco, Caxamarca, as far as Quito, with the coast valleys. The Colla-suyu, or southern division, was the basin of Lake Titicaca, and Charcas, as far as Tucuman, Chile, and the valleys of Arequipa, Moquegua, and Tacna. The country to the east of the land of the Incas and all that was known of the Amazonian forests was Anti-suyu.

From a geographical point of view the Cunti-suyu division is formed of three regions west of the Apurimac, within the meridians of 70° and 76° W., all watered by tributaries of the Apurimac. The first lies between the Apurimac and the Pachachaca rivers, the second between the Pachachaca and the Pampas, and the third includes the maritime cordillera between those meridians. They may be called, after their chief ayllus or tribes, the Quichua,^[1] Chanca, and Lucana regions.

The Quichuas occupied the beautiful valley of Apancay,^[2] and some valleys in the mountains as far as the fortress of Curamba, beyond the Pachachaca. Their position is partly defined in the account of Tupac's first campaign, when he occupied the Quichua strongholds of Tuyara,^[3] Cayara,^[4] and Curampa.^[5] The Quichuas were very closely allied to the Inca people in race, and their language was the same. Indeed, the first Spanish grammarian of the general language of the Incas called it Quichua, probably from having studied it in their country. Mossi gives a definition of the word from the passive participle of quehuini (I twist), which is quehuisca (twisted) and ichu (grass), that is quehuisca-ychu (twisted grass), by syncope quichua. It came to mean a temperate region, neither too hot nor too cold.

The Apancay valley presents scenes of great beauty. On the mountain to the south the products of almost every clime may be seen at one glance. The rapid little river flows along at its base, amongst waving maize crops and fruit trees. On the steep slopes immediately above there are crops of potatoes and other edible roots, then pastures on the steep mountain side with rocks cropping out, and higher the peaks shooting up into the sky. On the other side of Apancay there are terraced slopes, and cultivated tracts sloping down to the banks of the Pachachaca. Higher up the Pachachaca and other tributaries of the Apurimac, the mountain gorges and lofty punas were inhabited by four ayllus of hardy mountaineers closely allied to the Quichuas. These were the Chumpi-uilcas, Cotapampas, Umasayus, and Aymaras.^[6]

The beauty of the scenery between the rivers Pachachaca and Pampas is most striking as the summit ridges are reached, and the eye ranges over such valleys and gorges as are presented by Angamos, Pincos, and Huancarama.^[7] On a grassy plateau, commanding the road, is the ancient fortress of Curamba, a stronghold of the Quichuas. It consists of three terraces, one above the other with stone revetments, and a ramp on the east side forming a sloping way to each terrace. There were no doubt stockaded defences when it was used for operations of war. The great feature of this Chanca region is the extensive and fertile valley of Andahuaylas,^[8] capable of sustaining a very large population. There are other fertile valleys between Andahuaylas and the river Pampas which, like the Apurimac, flows through a gorge so profound that the vegetation on the river banks is quite tropical.

Beyond the Pampas, in the valleys formed by its tributaries flowing from the maritime cordillera, and on the Pacific slopes, there dwelt two powerful mountain tribes called Soras and Lucanas.^[9] They seem to have been more advanced in civilisation than their neighbours, for there are ruins of important edifices in the Sora country, called Vilcas-huaman. This was a palace of the Incas and their principal station in Cunti-suyu, but it existed before the annexation, for Montesinos mentions a king of Vilcas, and the Soras did not submit without making some resistance. Their neighbours, the Lucanas, occupied both slopes of the cordillera. On the Pacific side there is a large alpine lake frequented by flamingoes called Parihuana-cocha,^[10] round the banks of which their principal seat appears to have been. Below is the lovely coast valley of Nasca,^[11] owing its fertility to the most remarkable system of irrigation in Peru, which I believe to have been due to the skill, intelligence, and industry of the Lucanas. These mountaineers were remarkable for their strength, as well as for their skill and industry. In later times it was their special privilege to carry the imperial litter.

The Nasca valley is one of the most striking monuments of Andean civilisation. The fertilising water is led from the mountains of Lucanas by subterraneous channels, built of stone and the height of a man. Their origin in the mountains is now unknown. The water flows down them perennially, and is eventually spread over the valley by smaller channels, converting a coast desert into an earthly paradise. Pottery of a peculiar design, and believed to be of great antiquity, has recently been found in the valley of Nasca.

II

Chinchay-suyu

Chinchay-suyu, the northern division of the empire, includes the two great ranges of the Andes, and the rich and fertile valleys between them. The direction becomes nearly north and south, following the trend of the coast, not east and west as in Cunti-suyu. The valleys supported very large populations, and the mountains were inhabited by tribes of hardy mountaineers.

When the Inca Pachacuti sent the first army for the conquest of Chinchay-suyu, it included a large contingent of the conquered Chancas, led by one of their own chiefs named Anco-ayllu. They fought well for the Incas, but their leader chafed at his subjection, and incited his men to desert. A plot was arranged, and on a day settled beforehand the Chanca contingent left the camp and, led by Anco-ayllu, they proceeded by forced marches into the Amazonian forests. This exodus was commenced at a place called Huarac-tampu, near Huanuco. They were soon beyond the reach of pursuit, and it is believed that they settled in valleys along the lower course of the Huallaga. They were found there by a Spanish expedition in 1556, and a recent traveller has suggested that the half-civilised Lamistas, or Motilones, on the Huallaga, are their descendants. This event made a deep impression on the Inca recorders, for it is mentioned by several Spanish writers who received their information from the native Amautas.

On marching north from Vilcas-huaman, after crossing the deep gorge of the Pampas by a bridge of aloe cables, the Inca army entered upon the basin of the Jauja river, another tributary of the Apurimac. The various streams flowing to the Jauja are in the bottoms of deep ravines, while the intervening higher lands are fertile and produced large crops. To the west the splendid maritime cordillera rises abruptly, and in this part the fierce and warlike Morochucos sought for pastures and raised edible roots among the giddy heights. To the east were the equally imposing mountains of Cuntur-cunca, in the rear of which the Iquichanos defied invasion. The intervening plains and ravines were inhabited by the numerous tribe of Pocras, who made a desperate fight for independence.

The final stand of the Pocras and Morochucos was on a slope between two ravines, at the foot of the Cuntur-cunca heights. There was a terrible slaughter, and the place was ever afterwards called the Ayacucho, or 'corner of death.'^[12] The remnant of Morochucos fled westward to their own mountains, followed closely by the Inca general, who finally encamped on a grassy slope at the foot of the first steep ascent. As he sat with his officers around him at their evening meal, a falcon soared in circles round his head. He threw up a piece of llama flesh to it, crying out 'Huaman-ca' ('take it, falcon!') The tradition was never forgotten, and the natives tell it to this day. The place, afterwards the site of a Spanish city, was called Huamanca (Guamanga), in memory of the Inca's supper guest.^[13]

Advancing northwards up the Jauja valley, the Incas next defeated and brought under subjection the Huanca nation, which cultivated and inhabited that fertile region. In the mountains to the westward there were two remarkable tribes, the Yauyos and Huarochiris, who appear to have descended into the adjacent coast valleys, and to have greatly increased their well-being by exchanges of products raised in different climes. The Yauyos seem to have spread over the valleys of Pisco, Chincha, Huarcu (Cañete), and Mala; and in a ravine leading up from the Huarcu valley, called Runa-huana, there are some interesting ruins, referred to in an appendix. According to Garcilasso the inhabitants of Huarcu made a very desperate resistance to the Inca arms, and this seems to be confirmed by the fact that the ruins of an extensive Incarial fortress and palace, called Hervay, exist on a defensive hill close to the sea, flanked by a rapid river on one side and the desert on the other.

The Yauyos spoke a peculiar dialect of their own, called Cauqui. Much reduced in numbers and living in small villages high up in the mountains, there are now not more than 1500 people who still speak this dialect. Like the Rucanas and Morochucos, the Yauyos are an intelligent race, and make excellent artificers when any of them have opportunities of learning trades in the coast valleys which once belonged to them.

The Huarochiris lived in lofty gorges of the maritime cordilleras to the north of the Yauyos, with terrible passes over the snowy heights. But the descent on either side gradually led down to fairer scenes, on one side to the fertile vale of the Jauja, on the other to the coast valleys of Chilca, Lurin, and Rimac. The imposing grandeur of some of this scenery, contrasted with the peaceful beauty of the rest, seems to have been impressed on the imaginations of the Huarochiri, and to have given rise to a mythology full of quaint legends and fables. These will be discussed in the essay on the religious beliefs of the coast people. The temple to the fish god at Pachacamac attracted pilgrims from far and near as a famous oracle, as well as the oracle which gave its name to the Rimac valley. Both appear to have been due to the highly imaginative tendencies of those of the Huarochiris who settled on the coast. It was a little further north, at Pativilca, on the coast, that the more northern dominions of the Grand Chimu found its southern frontier. But this coast region, between Pativilca and the Rimac, seems to have been long in an unsettled state. The dwellings of the chiefs who occupied the Rimac valley were built on immense mounds of great extent, and strongly fortified. The mountain tribes of the maritime cordillera are quite exceptionally interesting, because the advances they had made in civilisation were due largely to their occupation of valleys on the coast.

The Incas received the submission of the mountaineers without invading their fastnesses, and pressed onwards in their northern conquests. They were now an immense distance from their base, but their generalship was carefully thought out and so sound that they advanced with confidence to the great lake of Chinchay-cocha and the mountain knot of Cerro Pasco, which, like that of Vilcañota, connects the eastern Andes with the maritime cordillera. The march, be it remembered, was not a matter of months, but of years.

The conquerors now entered another region, the basin of the Marañon, and the very remarkable formation known as the 'Callejon de Huaras.' At Huanuco a great palace was projected and afterwards built by Tupac Inca Yupanqui, forming eventually the chief seat of Inca government in Chinchay-suyu. Among the Conchucos they met with a people who had made marked progress in the arts, and had taken their own line in the conception of a religious belief. The Incas passed on and, after slight opposition, occupied Caxamarca. In another campaign Tupac Inca conquered the Paltas, and the turbulent tribe of Cañaris, while the territories of the great Chimu, in the coast valleys, were reduced to subjection. Quito also became part of the empire after one decisive battle.

The greatest proof of the genius of these Inca generals is the way in which they changed their tactics and methods of warfare as soon as they encountered circumstances of which they had previously no experience. Tupac Inca was at the palace he had caused to be built at Tumipampa, in the country of the Cañaris, when he heard of the riches of Manta, the land of emeralds, and of other coast regions. He resolved to explore, and to add these countries to the empire. He led his army down through the dense forests to the country of the Chonos (the modern Guayaquil), constructing a road as he advanced. With a hostile country, difficulties in arranging for supplies, and the extraordinary obstacles caused by the dense vegetation, the enterprise seemed almost hopeless. On reaching the banks of the Guayaquil, where it is navigable, he found the enemy in a large fleet of canoes, while he was without any means of attacking. But with Tupac Inca there was no such word as impossible. Having a very excellent system of road-making, and efficient commissariat arrangements, he was without anxiety about supplies. The more insuperable appeared the difficulties the more determined he was to overcome them. He proceeded to build canoes, and to exercise his soldiers as canoe-men until they were fairly expert. This occupied several months. He then attacked the enemy's fleet, and the manœuvres continued for several days, sometimes one side and sometimes the other having command of the river. The Incarial soldiers were more accustomed to the use of the lance than to naval warfare, so their very able general gave orders to grapple and fight at close quarters. The result was then no longer doubtful, and the Chonos submitted. The Inca landed where now stands the city of Guayaquil, and after a sojourn of a year he resolved upon the conquest of the island of Puna, in the Gulf of Guayaquil, assisted by the chiefs of the Chonos, who had become his allies. Many canoes were got ready, and good pilots were engaged. Here seamanlike skill was needed rather than reliance upon numbers. But nothing could resist Tupac's superior strategy, and the island was conquered. Most generous terms were granted, and a cordial friendship, cemented by a marriage, was established between the Inca and the Puna chiefs. The coast provinces of Manta and Esmeraldas, to the north, sent in their submission, and the port of Tumbez, to the south of the Gulf of Guayaquil, was fixed upon as a military station.

While the Tupac Inca Yupanqui was at Tumbez, he received information that, far out in the ocean, there were islands called Hahua-chumpi and Nina-chumpi, the outer and the fire islands. The Inca was a man of lofty ideals, and, as Sarmiento says, 'he resolved to challenge a happy fortune, and try if it would favour him by sea.' This was a wonderful expedition, but Sarmiento's account is corroborated by Balboa, and I have come to the conclusion that the story of the voyage is historically true.

The Incas caused an immense number of balsas to be constructed, consisting of inflated seal-skins fastened together, and some rafts. He then embarked with a large detachment of his army, leaving the main body to await his return at Tumbez.

Tupac Inca sailed away on this memorable voyage of discovery, disappearing below the horizon of those who gazed from the hills round Tumbez. To them it must have seemed an enterprise as appalling as it was unprecedented. If the Inca ever returned, his people would be convinced that there was nothing he might not do. It is said that he reached the islands, and that he was absent for nine months. Sarmiento believed that he reached the Solomon Islands, but there can be little doubt that it was two of the Galapagos Islands that the Inca discovered and explored. Sarmiento says that he brought back gold, a chair of brass, and the skin and jawbone of a horse, which were preserved in the fortress at Cuzco. It is more likely that the nature of these curiosities was not understood, and that they were really specimens of the large terrapins and other products of the Galapagos Islands.

The conquest and settlement of Chinchay-suyu by the Incas must be looked upon as the greatest of their military achievements. It occupied several years, and there were a number of campaigns. Still, when the immense distances from their base, the care and forethought needed to keep the army properly supplied, the inaccessible character of a great part of the country, and the necessity for adapting the troops to very different kinds of warfare, often in the face of the enemy, are considered, it must be acknowledged that the genius and ability of this remarkable race is very striking. The voyage of discovery to the Galapagos Islands is marvellous. These statesmen and warriors were no ordinary conquerors, and they were well fitted to rule the vast empire they brought together with such extraordinary skill and determination.

III

Colla-suyu

The basin of Lake Titicaca, the land of the mysterious megalithic city, was briefly described in the first essay. After the disruption of the ancient empire there was a long period of centuries of barbarism. The tribes which came to inhabit the country round the lake may have been partly descendants of subjects of the megalithic kings and partly descendants of invaders. They were a hardy race of mountaineers, strong and thick-set, and capable of enduring great fatigue. Like the Incas and Quichuas, they spoke dialects of the same original language.

Of these tribes the Canas were on the crest of the water-parting between the Titicaca drainage and the Vilcamayu. The Collas occupied the whole of the northern half of the Titicaca basin. They were the most numerous and powerful of the tribes in the Titicaca region. Along the western shores of the lake were the Lupacas. The Pacasas occupied the eastern side, and to the south were the Pacajes and Quillaguas. There was also an almost amphibious tribe living among the reeds in the south-west angle of Lake Titicaca, called Urus. They spoke a language of their own. Another, language, called Puquina, was spoken in part of Colla-suyu. Great invasions from the south are recorded, even from Chile, and the tribes of the lake basin were practised in mountain fighting.

The Collas had acquired predominance over the other tribes, and early writers give the generic name of Collas to them all. It was probably a confederacy, with the Colla chief at its head. He was becoming very powerful, extending his sway over Arequipa and Tacna towards the Pacific, and into some of the eastern valleys where coca is grown. His chief seat was at Hatun-colla, a few miles north-west of the north-western angle of Lake Titicaca. Here there are figures carved on stones, and some few other vestiges of the former greatness of the Colla chief. Just above are the towers or chulpas of Sillustani, overlooking a mountain lake.

The Collas buried their dead in cromlechs consisting of huge blocks of stone, many of which are still extant. Later they built circular towers of fine ashlar masonry, vaulted above with a coping round the upper part. Some are square. The best examples are at Sillustani, near Hatun-colla, the probable burial-place of the Colla chiefs.

Chuchi Ccapac was the name of the great chief who haughtily refused to submit to the Inca. He had a large force of hardy mountaineers around him, inured to hardships, brave, and of fine physique. They were concentrated for the defence of Hatun-colla, led by Chuchi Ccapac and all the chiefs of his confederacy.

The Collas were constantly making incursions down the valley of the Vilcamayu, and were as constantly driven back over the pass. At last the Inca built a wall from the snows of Vilcañota across the road to the snows on the western side. The Collas agreed that this should be their boundary. But they broke the treaty and continued their raids. The Inca, therefore, resolved to conquer them. Lizarraga says that the remains of the wall were still visible in his time, at the point on the summit of the pass called La Raya by the Spaniards.

The Inca Pachacuti assembled a great army, crossed the pass of Vilcañota, and advanced across the Collao without opposition until he came in sight of the enemy's forces drawn up in front of Hatun-colla. The proud chief was called upon either to serve and obey the Inca or to try his fortunes in battle. The reply was that Chuchi Ccapac expected the Inca to submit to him, like the chiefs of other nations he had conquered. The answer concluded with a savage threat.

The two armies then encountered each other in desperate hand-to-hand combats, and the issue was for a long time doubtful. The Inca was in every part, giving orders, fighting, and animating his troops. For a moment there was a pause. The slightest thing might have turned the scale. At this momentous crisis the Inca shouted a few words of encouragement and dashed into the thickest of the fight, closely followed by his Orejones. With renewed vigour all his troops rallied, and at length the gallant enemy turned and fled. Chuchi Ccapac was taken prisoner, and Pachacuti entered Hatun-colla in triumph. There he remained until all the confederate tribes were reduced to submission. An Inca viceroy was appointed to govern the Collao, with the necessary garrisons, and Pachacuti returned to Cuzco.

Colla-suyu was not, however, to be subdued in one campaign. A few years afterwards the sons of Chuchi Ccapac escaped, and raised the standard of revolt. The confederate tribes rallied round them. This time the battle took place further north, and the Collas were again defeated with great slaughter, near Lampa. Pachacuti returned to Cuzco, but two of his very able sons, Tupac Ayar Manco and Apu Paucar Usnu, remained to pacify the country, and to extend the conquest southwards over the countries of the Charcas and Chichas.

After the accession of Inca Tupac Yupanqui, the Collas rebelled once more to secure their freedom. They had constructed four strong places, all in the Colla country, to the north of Lake Titicaca, at Llallahua, Asillo, Arapa (on a small lake), and Pucara, an isolated rocky mountain rising out of the plain to a great height. The Inca generals were occupied for several years in reducing these fortresses. The final stand was at Pucara, where the Collas sustained a crushing defeat. All thoughts of further resistance were abandoned.

The Inca proceeded to include Tucuman and Chile in his conquests. A story is told by Montesinos respecting the Chilian annexation which seems quite probable.

It appears that two Chilian chiefs, who had come with a contingent to help the Collas, were taken prisoners and sent to Cuzco. They were received with great kindness by the Inca, who gave them two Pallas,^[14] his half-sisters, for their wives. They returned to Chile, and had two sons by the Inca princesses. In course of time the Inca's Chilian nephews proposed a visit to their imperial uncle, and arrived at Cuzco with a large retinue. They were received by the Inca with much love and great rejoicings. They entreated their uncle to visit their country, where all desired to see him. He consented to do so in the following year, and his nephews returned to Chile with many Orejones and several Amautas to teach them the art of government. But a number of Chilian chiefs thought that this friendship with the Inca boded no good to them, and they took up arms. The nephews, however, defeated them, even before the Inca could arrive in Chile, which he did with a great army. All the chiefs submitted to him and, after two years, he left his nephews in peaceful possession as his viceroys. His dominions extended to the river Maulé in the south of Chile. Thus the empire was more than 2000 miles in length, from the river Maulé to Pasto.

From that time the Collas and Chilians furnished valuable contingents to the Inca armies.

The Inca Tupac Yupanqui saw the necessity for establishing permanent tranquillity in the Collao by a system of colonisation. Great numbers of Collas and Lupacas were sent to colonise the charming valleys of Arequipa, Moquegua, and Tacna on the west side of the maritime cordillera. Others were sent down into the Amazonian valleys to the eastward, to cultivate coca and wash for gold. Traditions are preserved even now, which tell from which district in the Collao the exiles were taken, and whither sent. The conquest of the Collao was of immense importance, because it was the only source of tin for their bronze weapons and tools, and the principal source of gold from Caravaya.

Tupac Inca was deeply impressed by the vast ruins at Tiahuanacu, of unknown origin, by the beauties of the great lake, and of the sun rising over the snowy peaks of Illimani and Illampu. He caused a palace to be built on the island of Coati, in the lake, with baths and gardens. A number of Orejones remained in the Collao to carry on the administration, and emigrants arrived to take the places of the exiled Collas and Lupacas.

These emigrants were chiefly Quichuas of various tribes from Cunti-suyu. A number of Aymaras, from the head-waters of the Pachachaca, were settled among the remaining Lupacas at Juli on the west coast of the lake, where the languages of the two races appear to have got considerably mixed. In 1576 the Jesuits settled at Juli, and had a printing-press there, and here they learnt the language of the Lupacas from the Aymara emigrants, who gave them many Quichua words, for they seem to have used words of both languages in their conversations. This explains the reason why the first priests who acquired the Colla language and afterwards the Jesuits gave the name of 'Aymara' to the language of the Collao. Ludovico Bertonio was at Juli from 1590 to 1612, and before he arrived the Jesuits had adopted the name of 'Aymara' to what Bertonio calls esta lengua Lupaca. He published his 'Arte y Gramatica' of 'Aymara' at Rome in 1603, and a second edition, with a dictionary, at Juli in July 1612. Torres Rubio followed with a grammar and vocabulary of 'Aymara' in 1616. The word 'Aymara' is now generally, but very erroneously, applied to the language and people of the basin of Lake Titicaca.

IV

Anti-suyu

The chain of the eastern Andes is penetrated by five great rivers, which unite to form the 'mighty Orellana.' They flow northwards until they unite, and then flow eastward in one majestic stream to the Atlantic. The Amazonian basin which they traverse consists of millions of square miles of virgin forest. The first river is the Marañon, and being the most western and distant its source in the Andean lake of Lauricocha is considered to be the source of the Amazon. Next is the river Huallaga, flowing north until it joins the Marañon. Further to the east the great Ucayali tributary is formed by the Perene, Apurimac, and Vilcamayu, which all force a way through the Andes. Further south the Tono, Arasa, Inambari, Tambopata, and Beni rise on the eastern slopes of the Andes and do not penetrate the range. With the Mamoré and Itenez they form the great Madeira tributary. The rivers which have part of their courses within the Andean system, all have formidable rapids when they force their way through the mountains and enter the great Amazonian plains. These mountain rapids were called puncu, or doors, which the rivers had opened by their irresistible force. That of the Marañon is called the Puncu de Manseriche. On the Huallaga the rapid is known as the Salto de Aguirre, respecting which there is an interesting tradition: then the river is navigable for 160 miles. The Ucayali, a broad stream navigable for 1400 miles, breaks through the mountains at Canchaguayo. The Vilcamayu, navigable for 100 miles, enters the primeval forests by the Puncu de Mainique.

The vast Amazonian forests are approached by the descent of the eastern side of the Andes, down gorges and ravines which present magnificent scenery, the long spurs being covered with the richest tropical vegetation to their summits. Here are seen the lovely chinchona trees with their red-veined glossy leaves, and panicles of white flowers with pink laciniæ, emitting a delicious fragrance. Here, too, are many species of Melastomas, especially the Lasiandra with its purple flowers and triple-veined leaves. But the flowering trees and bushes are innumerable, and above the thick foliage are seen the feathery fronds of palm trees. From the loftier mountains waterfalls may be seen in rapid descent until they are lost to view behind the dense vegetation; some in sheets of spray, others like films of lace, but most in a solid volume of moving water, all glittering when the clouds open and the sun throws its rays upon them. These are scenes of unsurpassed loveliness. But in the plains below the view is obstructed by the vegetation growing in dense masses beneath the lofty trees. Only on the river banks there are beautiful views formed by long vistas of tropical vegetation.

 

ANTI-SUYU FOREST

 

It was to the forests eastward of Cuzco that the Incas first turned their attention. To the east of the valley of the Vilcamayu the range of the Andes is cut laterally by the Yanatilde valley, and further east by the long valley through which the river Paucartampu flows. Both the Yanatilde and Paucartampu flow north to join the Vilcamayu, though their previously unknown courses were only traced, for the first time, a very few years ago. From the last range of the Andes, on the east side of the Paucartampu river, the descent is rapid into the montaña, as the tropical forests are called by the Spaniards. The forests were very scantily inhabited by wild Indians who wandered about, some in canoes as fishermen, some hunting with bows and arrows or the pucuna (blowpipe). A few had some affinity with the people of the Andes, but the great majority of the Amazonian tribes were of a different race.

The subjugation of the parts of the montaña nearest to the foot of the Andes was a matter of great importance to the Incas. In the tropical valleys the coca plantations were formed and every Peruvian chewed coca. From the montaña also came supplies of bamboo, of wood of the chonta palm for their weapons, other timber for building, plumes for head-dresses, and the principal supplies of gold.

The campaign of Tupac Inca Yupanqui for the conquest of Anti-suyu was, like all his warlike operations, masterly in design and bold in execution. The long valley of Paucartambo, at the foot of the last ridge of the Andes, formed a convenient base where the three columns, forming the army of Anti-suyu, was to assemble. The Inca himself started from a place in the valley called Ahua-tuna, descending into the forest by the lovely ravine of the Chiri-mayu. The central column under Prince Uturuncu Achachi, the Inca's brother, was at a place called Amaru, the modern town of Paucartampu. It was to enter by the route now called 'Tres Cruces.' A captain named Chalco Yupanqui led the right column from the Pilcopata or 'garland hill.' At the same time the montaña of Marcapata, to the south, was to be invaded by Apu-ccuri-machi with a fourth column.

The three columns in the Paucartambo valley were to start at the same time on converging lines, to form a junction at Opotari in the forest, about twelve miles from the foot of the mountains. The inhabitants, who belonged to the tribe called Campas or Antis, submitted at once, and the settlement called Abisca, for the cultivation of coca, was formed near the river Tono. The Inca then began to make a road through the dense forest in order to reach the settlements of the next tribe. Tall trees were climbed to seek out the positions of inhabited places by the smoke rising over the trees. The troops suffered from the change of climate, and from the toil of hewing out the road. There was much sickness and many died. At one time the Inca, with a third of the troops, lost his way and wandered about for many days until, at last, they fell in with the column of Uturuncu, who put them on the route. The combined forces then descended the river Tono.

The final result of the campaign was that three branches of the Campas, a tribe of fine muscular men and beautiful women, submitted and became subjects of the Inca. These were the Opataris, the Mañaris, called also Yana-simis or 'black mouths,' and the Chunchos. The submission included a vast tract of forest, yielding valuable timber, and with land suitable for coca plantations. The Mañaris were also met with on the lower reaches of the river Vilcamayu, and in the montaña beyond the Vilcapampa mountains, and they always remained friendly to the Incas. Further north there was a fierce and hostile tribe called Pilcosones.

The Marcapata column led by Apu-ccuri-machi marched eastward to the Inambari, and advanced as far as a river called Paytiti, where their leader set up the frontier pillars of the Inca. Uturuncu was left to complete the conquest, aided by detachments of colonists who made clearings for coca plantations, and collected chonta poles and other products. Most of the settlements were round Abisca, and in the basin of the river Tono; but there were others on the banks of the Vilcamayu and in Marcapata.

After the conquest of Colla-suyu the forests of the province of Caravaya also became a great source of wealth to the Incas. Large numbers of Collas were sent down into the beautiful valleys to grow fruit trees and cultivate the coca plant, as well as to work and wash for gold. Indeed, it was principally from Caravaya that the immense quantities of gold came which were used for vases and other utensils, for adorning the temples and idols, for the imperial thrones and litters, for ornamenting the rich dresses, and for many other purposes. Much gold also came from the rich valleys whose rivers unite to form the Beni.

Further south there were some fierce and savage tribes in the forests of the 'Gran Chacu,' or great hunting ground. Among these the most troublesome were the Chirihuanas, who were said to have been cannibals. They were always hostile, and even had the audacity to make incursions into the higher lands of Charcas.

On the river Huallaga the remnant of the Chancas took refuge, and the ancestors of the existing Amazonian tribe of Mayorunas are said to have fled before the Chancas to settle lower down the course of the great river. The present Huallaga tribes of Cholones and Motilones, or Lamistas, may be descendants of the Chancas. The Incas occupied Chachapoyas in the basin of the Marañon. An expedition is recorded, sent by the Inca Huayna Ccapac to the country of the Cofanes, a tribe in the forests of the river Napo to the east of Quito. A story is also told by Montesinos of some Orejones having found their way thence by the waterways and through the dense forests to Cuzco, a voyage which occupied several years. It was certainly a most remarkable achievement if true, and considering the energy and intelligence of these people I can see no sufficient reason for doubting the truth of the story.

The wisdom of the Incas is well shown in their policy with regard to the region of Amazonian forests. They made no useless raids or expeditions, but worked with the distinct object of securing advantages for the empire. From their montaña settlements, quite sufficiently supplied with labour, they received gold in large quantities, coca which was almost a necessary of life for their people, timber for building, wood of the chonta palm for lances and other weapons, bamboos, plumes of feathers, fruit, and medicinal herbs, gums, and resins. In return the colonists received meat and potatoes, maize, clothing, salt and other condiments. The forests of the montaña formed a part, and no unimportant part, of the great system of Incarial administration.

1. Quichua (Khechua, Mossi) means a temperate region. For derivation Mossi suggests qquehuini (twist), whence qquehuiscca (twisted), with Ichu (straw), qquehuiscca ichu (twisted straw), by syncope Quichua.
2. Apani, I carry; apana, a load; cay, a particle giving an abstract idea. Perhaps the place of loading or of loads.
3. Tuya, a finch; rac, even.
4. Ccaya, after, future.
5. Sarmiento, p, 130. Cu, reflective form; rampa, a litter.
6. Chumpi, a cairn; uilca, sacred; cuta, ground; pampa, plain; uma, head; sayu, landmark; ayma, a song; aray, masked.
7. Anca, eagle; ma, let us see; pincu, roof; huanca, song of women working in the fields; ramca, dream.
8. Anta or Anda, terrace; hualla, green, fresh.
9. Sora, a liquor stronger than chicha; rucana, finger.
10. Parihuana, flamingo; cocha, lake.
11. Nanasca, hurt.
12. At the same place the independence of Peru was won at the battle between the Spanish Viceroy and the Colombian General Sucre, in 1824.
13. Morua tells the story differently. He says that the Inca Huayna Ccapac, with one of his sons named Huaman, was encamped here. The Inca granted the land to his son, saying Huaman-ca.
14. Palla was a married princess.