The Knickerbocker/Volume 64/Number 3/Japan and the Japanese
JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE.
In consequence of the long seclusion of the Japanese, and their inveterate antipathy to giving the slightest information to foreigners concerning their government, religion, character, or institutions, combined with their disposition to disguise the truth upon all matters, great and small, we have hitherto been without much reliable information concerning this singular people. This want has to some extent been supplied by a recent publication entitled, 'A Three Years' Residence in Japan,' by Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B., her Majesty's Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. And although the latter does not pretend to give a complete history of the Japanese empire and its internal organization, yet he has given a great deal of interesting information concerning the character of the people, their daily life, customs, and manners. The troubles, too, that have arisen between foreign nations and Japan have contributed to excite a keener interest in all that tends to dispel the mystery that has hitherto shrouded this curious people. We shall endeavor, as far as possible, in the limited space at our disposal, to give a résumé of what has now been added to our knowledge of Japan and the Japanese.
History of Japan.
And first, of their history. Accident first led to the discovery of Japan. Three Portuguese adventurers, on a half-piratical, half-trading expedition, in a Chinese junk, were driven by stress of weather upon its shores. From this time dates the commencement of European intercourse and trade. Our adventurers were treated with kindness, and there were no signs of that jealousy and hatred of foreigners which has since been manifested. Some years later, a Japanese nobleman fled his country and took refuge in Goa. By his representations that a profitable trade might be carried on, the merchants of Goa, together with the Jesuit fathers, who anticipated a rich harvest of souls, loaded a vessel with goods and presents, to open trade. In those days, commerce and the Bible went hand in hand; the latter, doubtless, to counteract the inevitable demoralization which follows in the train of the former: so a few missionaries, to attend to their spiritual concerns, were added to the cargo. Both traders and missionaries were received with open arms. The traders were permitted to travel from end to end of the empire, and the missionaries to preach and make converts without restriction.
At the close of forty years, the Roman Catholic religion had undisputed possession of the field, and their influence was such, that a Japanese embassy was sent to the Pope at Rome, with letters and valuable presents. They met with a magnificent reception, and great was the rejoicing of the Church over 'a nation of thirty millions won from the heathen.' After an absence of eight years (those were not the days of steam) this embassy, together with the Jesuit Superior, who had accompanied them from Japan, returned to their homes. A very different state of affairs awaited them from that they expected. The King of Bungo, their friend, was dead, and his suecessor had published an edict banishing the missionaries from the island. Their schools and hospitals had been suppressed, and the missionaries themselves expelled or forced into concealment. This edict was published in 1587. From that time continued persecution, with the restrictions and decay of trade; was followed, in 1635, by the entire expulsion of all, accompanied with acts of great cruelty. Since then, until recent treaties, no foreigner has been permitted to land, All cast upon its inhospitable shore were killed or imprisoned; and, though previously adventurous and skilful mariners—strange as it may seem, yet apparently true—no Japanese subject ever voluntarily left its shores for a foreign country,
In 1854, Commodore Perry, on the part of the United States, inserted the entering-wedge of a renewed intercourse, by concluding a treaty with the Japanese Government, insuring simply hospitality and good treatment to shipwrecked sailors.
Four years later, a treaty, having for its basis the opening anew of the country to commerce, and the establishing of permanent diplomatic relations, was concluded by Mr. Harris, the American representative. Then quickly followed English, Russian, French, and Dutch treaties, having the same object, thus entirely revolutionizing the whole Japanese policy for the last two hundred years. Recent events, however, have shown that, from whatever cause the Japanese were induced to conclude these treaties, their wishes were entirely averse to them. All sorts of evasions have been persistently resorted to, in order to avoid complying with their provisions, We may reasonably conclude, however, that as the request for their ratification was, in each instance, backed by a formidable show of the iron 'dogs of war,' the fear of the consequences of a refusal may have had quite as much influence in determining their action, as the prospects of any benefit to be derived.
GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION.
The system of government existing in Japan seems to be a somewhat complicated affair, and difficult to discover. If, as has been said, almost every stage of human existence is still to be met with in some part of the world and that from present, facts we may in great part reconstruct mentally the condition of times long past, that of Japan would seem to correspond most nearly with the old feudal system, in which the lord is every thing, the lower class nothing. The latter appear, however, to enjoy a considerable degree of freedom, since the lords are sufficiently occupied in fighting among themselves, and find no time to devote to their more humble neighbors.
The Mikado is the hereditary sovereign of the empire, descended from a long and uninterrupted line of sovereigns, and the really supreme ruler. He seldom exercises power or interferes in the government directly, however, his authority being delegated to the Tycoon, who is his lieutenant or generalissimo. Following the Tycoon comes the Kokushi, a council of eighteen or twenty-four (the number is uncertain) of the most powerful and wealthy Daimios, or hereditary princes, which apparently takes no active part in the government, but acts as a consultative council in questions of commanding importance. This council is sometimes increased to two hundred or more, forming a great council of state, and exercising the right of removing the Tycoon as well as his ministers and councillors. Next in order comes the Goeregio, or administrative council, consisting of five members of the third class of Daimios, forming the cabinet of the Tycoon. Subordinate to this council is another, of eight members, Daimios of the third and fourth class, with small revenues, Whose functions are purely administrative, Below these again are the Bunios, a very numerous class, and with various functions, as governors, consuls, and secretaries, The lowest class of government offices is filled, not by Daimios, but by vassals directly dependent on the Tycoon.
The Daimios are a very powerful class, some of them having larger revenues and more men-at-arms than the Tycoon himself. Each is practically independent of the Tycoon in his own territory, having the power of life and death over all his dependents and retainers, these numbering sometimes as high as ten thousand. The only way by which the Tycoon retains any semblance of authority over them, is by requiring them to reside, six months in the year, at his capital in Yeddo, within the limits of which he is supreme, and keeping their wives and children as hostages during the remainder of the year.
Their laws are very severe, most crimes being punished with death; and this inflicted. even for slight offences, on the ground that he who would break one law, would equally break another, providing there were a motive. Fines are regarded as repugnant alike to justice and reason, as the rich are thereby freed from punishment. There is one law—of honor, simply—more binding, perhaps, than any statutory law, that 'when the subjects or vassals of one prince affront those of another, the latter would be dishonored, if he did not avenge it.' As a matter of course, this must lead to frequent and interminable quarrels, in order to prevent which, one of the Daimios hit upon a very ingenious and effective plan. He made a law that if one of his retainers felt himself insulted by a subject of another prince, he should be permitted to avenge the insult by slaying his enemy, provided he committed suicide (hara-kiru) immediately after, which proviso was rigorously carried into effect. We can easily believe 'the people generally treated each other with the greatest politeness.'
In regard to their religion, the very little that can be gleaned, leads to the belief that it is not of a very high order. The substance is, that 'the more immediate end they propose to themselves is a state of happiness in this world;' having only a very vague idea of the soul's immortality and a state of future bliss or misery. Even this only exists among the lower orders, the educated classes being generally unbelievers in a future existence, They deify certain great men and sovereigns, and worship foxes as the incarnations of the Evil One.
MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC.
'A Japanese, quite at his ease, as naturally drops on his knees and squats, with no more solid support to his person than his legs or heels can afford, as an Englishman drops into a chair when he is tired. If the Japanese are on ceremony, then they sink on the mats, resting jointly on heels and knees,' maintaining the uncouth, and, to an European, impossible position for hours without apparent inconvenience. On retiring for the night, 'they throw themselves down full length on the mat, with a little padded rest, just large enough to receive the occiput or the angle of the jaw, and sleep as soundly as the most fastidious with a feather pillow and bed.' Clean mats, six by three feet, stuffed with fine straw, with a beautiful silk border, constitute the bed. From this squatting custom it results, that sofas, chairs, and tables are superfluous. The house-furnishing can not be a serious obstacle to marriage in Japan, 'Their future house is taken, containing generally three or four little rooms, in which clean mats are put. Each then brings to the house-keeping a cotton-stuffed quilt and a box of wearing apparel for their own personal use; a pan to cook the rice; half a dozen lacker cups and trays to cat off; a large tub to bathe and wash in, is added on the general account; and these complete the establishment.' 'Arcadian simplicity,' indeed!
Some of the habits of the fair sex in Japan—blacking their teeth, plucking the hair from their eyebrows, daubing their lips with a brick-red color—would seem to conflict with our ideas of female beauty. However, here, as in numerous other instances, 'tastes differ.' In the matter of clothing we learn, also, that the working classes are very economical, their dress consisting of a very narrow girdle, The better classes are clothed, however, but the women seldom appear in public. Notwithstanding their nudity, and their custom of promiscuous public baths for both sexes, 'it is asserted by those who have lived longest among them, that the people are not less chaste than in Europe.'
Tattooing is common among the men, and they have carried the art to a high degree of perfection. With 'the greater part of the body and limbs scrolled over with bright blue dragons, and lions, and tigers, and figures of men and women tattooed into their skins with the most artistic and elaborate ornamentation,' they must present a striking appearance. The women, with less vanity, perhaps, are content with the skin that Nature gave them.
The amusements of the Japanese are, as is the case with other Eastern nations, what we should call of a childish character. Top-spinning—in which marvellous dexterity is displayed—blowing soap-bubbles, games with cards, and similar plays, are common among the grown population. Musicians and jugglers are extensively patronized. The latter are adepts, outrivalling the most skilful of Western professionals. They ‘not only swallow portentously long swords, but out of their mouths come the most unimaginable things: flying horses, swarms of flies, ribbons by the mile, and paper shavings without end.' But we shall rarely misjudge them, if we conceive them capable of nothing better than this, In regard to material civilization, they stand in the front rank among Eastern nations, and almost on par with Europeans. Supplied, as we are, with the most perfect appliances of art, it is something astonishing to find the results that may be achieved by a people with the rudest implements. A strong testimony to their enterprise and ingenuity is given in the fact, that they manufactured a complete steam-engine, with which they actually worked a boat. It was made entirely from plans in a Dutch work. They have also a keen perception of the advantage to be gained by using the powers of nature. Wherever nature has supplied a force, either in field or work-shop, it is laid under contribution. Another evidence of their genius is given, in the perfection to which they have carried the art of manufacturing paper. This is nearly all made from the bark of trees, and is superior, in some respects, to that manufactured in Europe. Cotton is also used for the same purpose, though bark is preferred on account of its toughness. Sixty-seven different kinds were forwarded to the London Exhibition. Considering the present high price of cotton, our own manufacturers might with advantage, perhaps, receive a lesson from their brethren in Japan.
We are told that the time which has elapsed, since the conclusion of the first treaty, has been employed in putting their powers for offence and defence, in ease of war with foreign nations, upon a better footing. Cannon have been cast, batteries erected, steam-ships purchased, and 'enough powder expended in ball practice and drill to have supplied ammunition for a campaign.' It would not be surprising, if a people so apt and ingenious, so isolated from all communication, might have better success than we are inclined to believe, in case the government should concur with the Daimios in their present policy of expelling foreigners from their land.
The main street of Yeddo, the capital of Japan, must present an animated appearance, The shops are of all kinds, open in front, with a small back-room. There are book-sellers', pawnbrokers', and old-iron shops, bath-houses, coopers, armorers, sword-makers, basket-makers, ready-made clothes dealers, and print-shops, on either hand. A constant stream of pedestrians and horsemen, with occasionally a prince's cortége of mixed horse and foot, add variety to the seene, In another street, are long lines of booths for the sale of swords, story-books, prints, tobacco, and pipes, in the midst of which a fortune-teller may habitually be seen surrounded by credulous listeners. Gambling-tables, with sweet-meats for stakes, are common, more serious gambling being reserved for the privacy of their homes, A most singular sight is that of a class of penitents, or disgraced officers, who go about with a sort of basket mask covering and concealing their faces; a custom which is taken advantage of by criminals and others wishing to travel incog.
Suburban gardens and temples are common around Yeddo, to which it is one of the great delights of the people to make excursions. We are informed that troops of men, women, and children are to be seen wending their way along the shady walks to enjoy the beauties of nature; to which enjoyment the evil of intemperance seems to be one great drawback. The men drink deep of saki—an intoxicating beverage—a practice not altogether confined to their sex; and being exceedingly quarrelsome in their cups, are somewhat dangerous; the danger being heightened by a habit of carrying two swords in their belt, and 'feeling It a point of honor to flesh them at the first convenient opportunity.'
The streets are clean and well cared for, and the country remarkable for the best macadamized roads in the world.
The houses are all built of wood and lath, with a slight coating of mud. Owing to their inflammable structure, fires are common, the prevalence of incendiarism being added to the more obvious risks. The Japanese 'take the burning down of a whole quarter periodically, much as they do the advent of an earthquake or a typhoon, calamities beyond the power or wisdom of man to avert.' It is estimated that the whole of the vast city of Yeddo is burnt down and rebuilt once in every seven years. This is the more surprising, when we reflect what strides toward civilization they have made in some other respects.
In closing this account of their customs, we cannot forbear quoting the following pleasant description of the strange contrast between certain of their habits and those of Western nations:
'Japan is essentially a country of paradoxes and anomalies, where all, even familiar things, put on new faces, and are curiously reversed, Except that they do not walk on their heads instead of their feet, there are few things in which they do not seem, by some occult law, to have been impelled in a perfectly opposite direction and a reversed order, They write from bottom to top, from right to left, in perpendicular instead of horizontal lines, and their books begin where ours end, thus furnishing good examples of the curious perfection this rule of contraries has attained, Their locks, though imitated from Europe, are all made to lock by turning the key from left to right. The course of all sublunary things appears reversed. Their day is for the most part our night, and this principle of antagonism crops out in the most unexpected and bizarre way in all their moral being, customs, and habits. I leave to philosophers the explanation—I only speak to the facts. There, old men fly kites while the children look on; the carpenter uses his plane by drawing it to him, and their tailor a stitch from them; they mount their horses from the offside; the horses stand in the stables with their heads where we place their tails, and the bells to their harness are always on the hind-quarters instead of the front; ladies black their teeth instead of keeping them white, and their anti-crinoline tendencies are carried to the point of seriously interfering not only with grace of movement, but with all locomotion, so tightly are the lower limbs, from the waist downward, girt round with their garments.'
AGRICULTURE AND SCENERY.
'Farmers hold the second place in the social scale,' says Sir Rutherford Alcock. This being the case, we should naturally expect to find the people well skilled in agriculture, in which reasonable expectation we are not disappointed. As a result of the dense population—a density rivaling that of China—all the land is under cultivation. It is also thoroughly cultivated. Cropping and the rotation of crops are well understood. Rice is the principal article of food, though rice-planting is the most arduous agricultural labor performed. Tobacco, it would appear, must receive a due share of attention, since almost every man and woman smokes in Japan. A good field is presented here for a modern King James to blow another 'Counterblast.' There is absolutely no land idle. 'When not producing edible crops, the ground is planted with trees, and, by the time it is again to be brought into cultivation, those trees turn out to be useful timber.' Vegetables are largely cultivated, though having the singular property of being tasteless, except the potato, which is of tolerable flavor. A greater variety seems to be grown even than with us. Possibly they are enabled to make up in quantity what they lack in quality. There are sweet potatoes, turnips, carrots, lettuce, beet-root, yams, tomatos, ginger, the egg-plant, gourds, melons, cucumbers, mushrooms, horse-radish, spinach, leeks, garlics, capsicums, endive, and fennel. Of fruits there are peaches, grapes, watermelons, apples, pears, plums, chestnuts, oranges, pomegranates, figs, lemons, citrons, strawberries, and others. Amateur gardening appears to be a passion, of which the cultivation of dwarf plants is a good example. It is difficult to conceive of the amount of patient industry required to produce perfect dwarf trees, often not more than one foot in height.
Of the scenery Sir Rutherford gives us the following sketch: 'Such fertility of soil, fine growth of ornamental timber, richness and variety of foliage, of such perfection of care and neatness in the hedgerows and shady lanes, the gardens, and the numerous pleasure-grounds of the temples, are not, I believe, to be found anywhere out of England. The brilliant green hues and freshness of the grass and every kind of foliage rather betokens a damp climate; but the mixture of tropical vegetation with endless succession of evergreen trees and the hardier race of pines and conifers, gives a character to the whole scenery of the country, as novel as it is perfect in effect. . . . . There is an infinite variety of form, character, and coloring in the masses of foliage that everywhere meet the eye, grouped in the midst of well-kept fields and verdant slopes.'
To sum up, then, we find here a happy and contented people of simple habits, singularly favored in soil and climate, and with no wants which intercourse with foreign nations is needed to supply. Artificial wants must be created, ere Commerce, more all-embracing than the hundred-armed Briaræus of old, can secure the benefits so ardently prophesied by its eager disciples.