The Origins of the Islamic State/Part 6/Chapter 1

by Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyá al-Balādhurī

PART VI

ANDALUSIA

CHAPTER I

The Conquest of Andalusia

Ṭâriḳ crosses the Straits. According to al-Wâḳidi, the first to invade Andalusia^[1] was Ṭâriḳ ibn-Ziyâd,^[2] the ʿâmil of Mûsa ibn-Nuṣair, and that was in the year 92. Ṭâriḳ was met by Ulyân, the commander of the Majâz^[3] al-Andalus, whom he promised safety provided he would transport him with his companions to Andalusia in his ships. When he arrived there, Ṭâriḳ was resisted by the people, but he effected the conquest of the land in the year 92.^[4] The king of Andalusia, it is claimed, belonged to the Ashbân [Spanish] people whose origin was from Iṣbahân.^[5] Mûsa ibn-Nuṣair wrote Ṭâriḳ a severe letter for risking the lives of the Moslems and following his own opinion without consulting Mûsa as regards the campaign. In the meantime, he ordered him not to go beyond Cordova [Ar. Ḳurṭubah].^[6] Mûsa himself proceeded to Cordova in Andalusia; and Ṭâriḳ sought and was reinstated in his favor. Ṭâriḳ then reduced the city of Ṭulaiṭulah,^[7] the capital of the kingdom of Andalusia and which lies next to France [Ar. Faranjah]. Here he carried off a wonderful table^[8] which Mûsa ibn-Nuṣair, on his return in the year 96, offered as a present to al-Walîd ibn-ʿAbd-al-Malik in Damascus, who was sick at that time. When Sulaimân ibn-ʿAbd-al-Malik came to power, he demanded 100,000 dînârs from Mûsa ibn-Nuṣair; but when Yazîd ibn-al-Muhallab interceded in Mûsa's behalf, he was spared.

Ismâʿîl governor of al-Maghrib. When ʿUmar ibn-ʿAbd-al-ʿAzîz became caliph, he appointed over al-Maghrib Ismâʿîl ibn-ʿAbdallâh ibn-abi-l-Muhâjir, a freedman of the banu-Makhzûm, who behaved according to the best standards and invited the Berbers to Islâm. ʿUmar ibn-ʿAbd-al-ʿAzîz also wrote them letters to that effect, which were read to them in the different districts by Ismâʿîl. Thus did Islam prevail over al-Maghrib.

Yazîd as governor. When Yazîd ibn-ʿAbd-al-Malik assumed power, he appointed Yazîd ibn-abi-Muslim. a freedman of al-Ḥajjâj ibn-Yûsuf, over Ifrîḳiyah and al-Maghrib. The latter arrived in Ifrîḳiyah in the year 102, and had his guard of Berbers. On the hand of every guard, he inscribed the word "Guard",^[9] which act displeased them and made them impatient with him. Some of them entered into a conspiracy and agreed to kill him. One evening, he went out for the sunset prayer, and they killed him in his place of worship. Yazîd then appointed Bishr ibn-Ṣafwân al-Kalbi. Bishr beheaded ʿAbdallâh ibn-Mûsa ibn-Nuṣair in revenge for Yazîd [ibn-abi-Muslim] on the ground that he was suspected of killing him and arousing people against him.

Bishr and other governors. Hishâm ibn-ʿAbd-al-Malik again appointed Bishr ibn-Ṣafwân.^[10] The latter died in al-Ḳairawân in the year 109. Hishâm appointed in his place ʿUbaidah ibn-ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân al-Ḳaisi,^[11] after whom Hishâm appointed ʿAbdallâh^[12] ibn-al-Ḥabḥâb, a freedman of the banu-Salûl. ʿAbdallâh sent ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân ibn-Ḥabîb ibn-abi-ʿUbaidah ibn-ʿUḳbah ibn-Nâfiʿ al-Fihri to the invasion of as-Sûs^[13] and the land of as-Sûdân. The victories won by ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân were unparalleled, and among the booty he carried away were two of the women slaves of that region, each with one bosom. These people are known by the name of Tarâjân.

After ibn-al-Ḥabḥâb, Hishâm appointed Kulthûm ibn-ʿIyâḍ al-Ḳushairi who arrived in Ifrîḳiyah in the year 23^[14] and was killed in it. Hishâm appointed after Kulthûm, Ḥanẓalah ibn-Ṣafwân al-Kalbi,^[15] a brother of Bishr, who fought against the Kharijites^[16] and died there while he held the governorship.

When al-Walîd ibn-Yazîd ibn-ʿAbd-al-Malik assumed power, ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân ibn-Ḥabîb al-Fihri rose against him. ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân was in good favor with the inhabitants of this frontier region [northern Africa and al-Maghrib], because of the good deeds done in it by his grandfather ʿUḳbah ibn-Nâfiʿ. Consequently, ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân subdued this region; and Ḥanẓalah departed, leaving ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân over it.

When Yazîd ibn-al-Walîd assumed the caliphate, he did not send to al-Maghrib any ʿâmil.

Then came Marwân ibn-Muḥammad to power. ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân ibn-Ḥabîb communicated with him and professed homage and sent him presents. Marwân had a secretary, Khâlid ibn-Rabîʿah-l-Ifrîḳi, who was a special friend of ʿAbd-al-Ḥamîd ibn-Yaḥya and kept up a correspondence with him. Marwân confirmed ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân as governor of the region, and appointed after him Ilyâs ibn-Ḥabîb, and after that, Ḥabîb ibn-ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmân. After this, the Ibâḍites^[17] and the Berbers of the Khârijites had the upper hand.

Towards the end of abu-l-ʿAbbâs' caliphate, Muḥammad ibn-al-Ashʿath al-Khuzâʿi came to Ifrîḳiyah as its ruler at the head of 70,000 men, according to others, 40,000. His rule lasted for four years, during which he repaired the city of al-Ḳairawân. At last, the troops of the city rose against him together with others. I heard it reported that the inhabitants of the town and the troops that were in it rose against him and he held out against them in his castle for 40 days, during which his followers from Khurâsân, and others who owed him allegiance, came to his help. Consequently, he succeeded in laying hold on those who fought against him. He then went over the names and put to death every one whose name was Muʿâwiyah, Sufyân, Marwân or any other name that is borne by anyone of the banu-Umaiyah, sparing only those who had different names. He was thereupon dismissed by al-Manṣûr.

ʿUmar ibn-Ḥafṣ ibn-ʿUthmân ibn-Ḳabîṣah ibn-abi-Ṣufrah-l-ʿAtaki, known as Hizârmard, was then made governor by al-Manṣûr, who had great admiration for him. ʿUmar entered Ifrîḳiyah and launched in it a campaign that carried him to the extremity of the land of the Berbers, where he built a city which he called al-ʿAbbâsîyah. Abu-Ḥâtim as-Saddarâti-l-Ibâḍi (one of the inhabitants of Saddarâtah and a freedman of the Kindah) fought against Hizârmard; and the latter suffered martyrdom together with some members of his family. The frontier region broke out in revolt, and the city he had established was destroyed.

Hizârmard was succeeded by Yazîd ibn-Ḥâtim ibn-Ḳabîṣah ibn-al-Muhallab,^[18] who rebelled at the head of 50,000 men and was accompanied to Jerusalem by abu-Jaʿfar al-Manṣûr who spent large sums of money on him. Yazîd advanced until he met abu-Ḥâtim in Tripoli [Ar. Aṭrâbulus]. He killed him and made his entrance to Ifrîḳiyah, where everything went smoothly with him.

Yazîd ibn-Ḥâtim was succeeded by Rauḥ ibn-Ḥâtim, and the latter by al-Faḍl ibn-Rauḥ, who was slain by the troops that rose up against him.

I was informed by Ahmad ibn-Nâḳid, a freedman of the banu-l-Aghlab, that al-Aghlab ibn-Sâlim at-Tamimi,^[19] of Maru ar-Rûdh,^[20] was among those who came from Khurâsân with al-Musauwidah.^[21] Al-Aghlab was appointed by Mûsa-l-Hâdi governor of al-Maghrib. When al-Aghlab came to Ḳairawân Ifrîḳiyah, Ḥarîsh, who was once in the army of the frontier region of Tûnis, gathered a body of men, with whom he marched against him and besieged him. Al-Aghlab later made a sortie, and in the battle which followed was hit by an arrow and fell dead. Neither his followers nor those of Ḥarîsh knew of it. At last Ḥarîsh was defeated with his army and were pursued by the men of al-Aghlab for three days, during which many were killed, including Ḥarîsh himself, who fell in a place called Sûḳ al-Aḥad. Al-Aghlab after this was called "the martyr" [ash-Shahîd].

Ibrâhîm ibn-al-Aghlab, one of the leading men of the Egyptian army, arose one day with twelve men and carried away from the treasury the exact value of their subsistence allowances and no more. They ran away to a place called az-Zâb which lay at a distance of more than ten days from al-Ḳairawân. The ʿâmil of this frontier region, at that time under ar-Rashîd Hârûn, was Harthamah ibn-Aʿyan.^[22] Ibrâhîm ibn-al-Aghlab assumed the commandership of the troops that were in that region and offered presents to Harthamah, showing him kindness and telling him in writing that he did not rebel or disobey, but was rather forced to what he did by urgency and necessity. Harthamah assigned him to be governor of the region and intrusted to him its affairs.

When Harthamah's resignation from the governorship of this region [Ifrîḳiyah] was accepted, he was succeeded by ibn-al-ʿAkki.^[23] whose rule was so bad that the people rose up against him. Ar-Rashîd consulted Harthamah regarding a man whom he could assign to that post and intrust to him its management, and Harthamah advised him that Ibrâhîm be reconciled, won over and appointed over the region. Accordingly, ar-Rashîd wrote to Ibrâhîm, stating that he had forgiven him his crime, excused his fault and thought it wise to assign him to the governorship of al-Maghrib as an act of favor, expecting to receive from him loyalty and good counsel. Ibrâhîm became ruler of the region and managed its affairs thoroughly.

One of the city troops named ʿImrân ibn-Mujâlid rose in a revolt and was joined by the army of the region, who demanded that their subsistence allowances be given them, and laid siege to Ibrâhîm in al-Ḳairawân. Soon after that, those who pay allowances and stipends came bringing money from the kharâj of Egypt; and when the dues were given, they [the rebels] dispersed themselves. Ibrâhîm built al-Ḳaṣr al-Abyaḍ [the white citadel] two miles to the ḳiblah of al-Ḳairawân, and parceled out the land around it among the Moslems, who established themselves and their residences there. Thus did that section become populated. Ibrâhîm also built a cathedral mosque with gypsum and brick and marble columns, and covered it with cedar wood, making it 200 dhirâʿs in length and almost 200 dhirâʿs in width. He bought slaves to the number of 5,000, emancipated them and made them settle around it. This city he called al-ʿAbbâsîyah, which is still flourishing to-day.

Al-Abbâsîyah. Muḥammad ibn-al-Aghlab ibn-Ibrâhîm ibn-al-Aghlab^[24] built in the year 239 a city near Tâhart^[25] and named it al-ʿAbbâsîyah, too. This city was destroyed by Aflaḥ ibn-ʿAbd-al-Wahhâb al-Ibâḍi, who wrote to the Umaiyad chief of Andalusia, informing him of his act in order to win his favor. The Umaiyad chief sent him 100,000 dirhams.

Bârah. There lies in al-Maghrib a land known as al-Arḍ al-Kabîrah^[26] [the big land], situated at a distance of 15 days, more or less, from Barḳah. In it lies a city on the coast, called Bârah, whose inhabitants were Christians, but not Greeks. This city was invaded by Ḥablah,^[27] the freedman of al-Aghlab, who failed to reduce it. It was later invaded by Khalfûn al-Barbari (supposed to have been a freedman of the Rabîʿah) who reduced it in the early part of al-Mutawakkil's caliphate.

Al-Mufarraj ibn-Sallâm. After Khalfûn there arose one called al-Mufarraj ibn-Sallâm who conquered and brought under his control 24 forts. He then forwarded the news of the situation to the Master of the post^[28] in Egypt, and told him that he and his followers could conduct no [public] prayer unless the imâm confirms him over his district and makes him its ruler, so that he may not be included in the category of usurpers. Al-Mufarraj erected a cathedral mosque. Finally his men rose up against him and killed him.

Sûrân. He was followed by Sûrân who sent his messenger to al-Mutawakkil, the "Commander of the Believers," asking for a confirmation and a letter of appointment to a governorship. Al-Mutawakkil, however, died before his messenger departed with the message to Sûrân.

Al-Muntaṣir-Billâh died after holding the caliphate for six months. Then came al-Mustaʿîn-Billâh Aḥmad ibn-Muḥammad ibn-al-Muʿtaṣim who ordered his ʿâmil over al-Maghrib, Ûtâmish, a freedman of the "Commander of the Believers", to confirm Sûrân; but no sooner had the messenger started from Surra-man-ra'a, than Ûtâmish was slain.^[29] That region was after that governed by Waṣîf, a freedman of the caliph, who confirmed Sûrân in his position.

Footnotes

1. Al-Andalus, Spain. Yaʿḳûbi, Buldân, pp. 353–355.
2. ʿAdhâri, vol. ii, pp. 11 seq.
3. "The straits separating Morocco from Andalusia," al-Marâkishi, al-Muʿjib fi-Talkhîṣ Akhbâr al-Maghrib, p. 6.
4. ʿAdhâri, vol. ii, pp. 5 seq.
5. Ispahan of Persia. The Arabs were misled to this conclusion by the accidental similarity between the two names. See Masʿûdi, vol. ii, pp. 326–327.
6. Idrîsi, Ṣifat al-Maghrib, pp. 208–214.
7. Toledo. Muḳaddasi, p. 235; Khurdâdhbih, p. 89.
8. "Once owned by king Solomon", Marâkishi, p. 8.
9. Ar. ḥarasi. ʿAdhâri, vol. i, p. 34.
10. ʿAdhâri, vol. i, p. 35.
11. Ibid., vol. i, p. 36: "as-Sulami".
12. Ibid., vol. i, p. 38: "ʿUbaidallâh"; cf. Maḥâsin, vol. i, p. 319.
13. Idrîsi, Ṣifat al-Maghrib, p. 165.
14. ʿAdhâri, vol. i, p. 41.
15. Al-Kindi, Kitâb al-Wulât w-al-Ḳuḍât, pp. 71–72, 80–82 (ed. Guest).
16. Al-Khawârij. Rebels led by the heretic ʿUkkâshah aṣ-Ṣufri; see ʿAdhâri, vol. i, pp. 45–47.
17. Ash-Shahrastâni, Kitâb al-Milal w-an-Niḥal, p. 100 (ed. Cureton).
18. Kindi, pp. 111–117.
19. Ibid., p. 110.
20. Hamadhâni, Buldân, pp. 319–322.
21. The partisans of the Abbasid dynasty, so called because they wore black clothes.
22. Kindi, p. 136.
23. ʿAdhâri, vol. i, p. 80.
24. ʿAdhari, vol. i, p. 107.
25. Ṭabari, vol. iii, p. 562.
26. Idrîsi, Ṣifat al-Maghrib, p. 56.
27. "Ḥayah" in Athîr, vol. vi, p. 370.
28. Ṣâḥib al-barîd. Ibn-aṭ-Ṭiḳṭaḳa, al-Fakhri, p. 129.
29. Ṭabari, vol. iii, pp. 1512, 1513.