The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago/Chapter 3

by Visvanatha Kanakasabhai Pillai

CHAPTER III.

Foreign Trade.

From the earliest times, the products of Tamilakam appear to have attracted the merchants of distant lands. It was most probably from Tamilakam that, during the reign of Solomon (about B. c. 1000) “once in every three years, the ships of Tarshish came bringing gold and silver, ivory, apes and peacocks.” The names of the last two objects Kapim and Tukim as found in the Hebrew Bible are the same as those still used in Tamil: i.e., Kavi and Thokai. Subsequently the Arabs and Greeks appear to have kept up the trade with Tamilikam. The Greek names for rice (Oryza), ginger (Zingiber), and cinnamon (Karpion) are almost identical with their Tamil names, Arisi, Inchiver and Karuva, and clearly indicate that Greek merchants conveyed these articles and their names to Europe from the Tamil-land. The Egyptian Greeks under the Ptolemies carried on an extensive trade in Indian commodities and Alexandria became, at an early period, the chief emporium of this lucrative commerce. Ships of small size which cautiously sailed along the coast carried the merchandise to ports on the Red Sea, and thence it was taken by caravans, to the nearest point on the River Nile, and by boats down the river to Alexandria. “I found” says Strabo (19 A. D.) “that about one hundred and twenty ships sail from Myos-Hermos (a port on the Red Sea) to India.” About this time a Greek named Hippalos, acting on information received probably from Arab on Hindu merchants, boldly stood out to sea, from Cape Fartak in Arabia, and sailing with the south-west monsoon trade winds found a direct route to the pepper bearing country in Tamilakam. Thenceforward the trade with Tamilakam increased considerably. The Romans who conquered Egypt were not slow to take advantage of the profitable trade with Tamilakam.

Pliny describes as follows the navigation to India “as it had been recently discovered and was practised in his day.”

“Afterwards it was found the safest course to proceed direct from the promontory of Syagrus in Arabia (Cape Fartak) to Patale^[1] with the west wind (Favonius) which they call there the Hippalos, a distance reckoned at 1,435 miles. In the next generation it was judged to be both a safer and nearer course to proceed from the same promontory direct to Sigerus, a port of India. And this mode of navigation was preserved for a long time, until merchants discovered a shorter route and the profits of India were thus brought nearer to hand; The voyage is now made every year with cohorts of archers on board the ships, on account of the pirates who infest those seas. It will be worth while to set forth their whole course trom Egypt, accurate information concerning it being now for the first time available. The subject is one worthy of attention, there being no year in which India does not drain our Empire of at least 55,000,000 sesterces (£486,979) sending us in return wares which are sold for a hundred times their original value.”

“They begin the navigation in the middle of summer before the rising of the Dog-star or immediately after its appearance, and arrive in about thirty days at Ocelis^[2] in Arabia, or Cane^[3] in the frankincense-bearing region. There is also a third port called Muza^[4] which is frequented not by those sailing to India, but by the merchants, who trade in frankincense and other Arabian perfumes. In the interior is a city, the capital of the kingdom called Sapphar^[5] and another called Sane. But for those whose course is directed to India it is most advantageous to start from Ocelis. From thence they sail with the wind called Hippalos in forty days to the first commercial station of India named Muziris, which is not much to be recommended on account of the neighbouring pirates who occupy a place called Nitrias: nor does it furnish any abundance of merchandise. Moreover the station of shipping is far from the land and cargoes have to be loaded and unloaded in barges. The ruler of the country at the time of which I speak was Coelobothras. There is another more advantageous port which is named Barace in the territory of a nation called the Neacyndi. The king of that country was named Pandion, Who resided far from the port in a city of the interior which is called Madura. But the region from which pepper is brought to Barace in barges hewn out of single trees is called Cottonara (Kuddanâdu}. None of these names of nations or ports or cities are found in any former writer, from which it is evident what changes take place in the state of things in these countries. They commence the return voyage from India at the beginning of the Egyptian month of Tybis, which answers to our December, or at all events within the sixth day of the Egyptian month Mechir, that is, within our Ides of January. Thus it comes to pass they return home within the year. They make the return voyage from India with the south-east wind (Vulturnus) and when they have entered the Red Sea, with the south-west or south wind.”^[6]

The author of the Periplus commences his account of the commerce and navigation of the Erythraean Sea with a description of the roadsteads on the Red Sea and of their exports and imports. Then he describes the seaports of the African Coast and on the Arabian and Persian Coasts. Passing the mouth of the Indus, he mentions the gulfs of Barake (Kach) and of Barugaza (Cambay) then Barugaza (Broach) near the mouth o the Nammadios (Nerbada). South of Barugaza the country is called Dakhinabades (Dakshinapatha). Among the local marts in this region is Kalliena, (the modern Kalyana near Bombay). After Kalliena, he mentions seven seaports, then the islands called Sesekreienai and the island of the Aigidioi and that of the Kaineitai, near what is called the Khersonesos, places in which are pirates, and after this the island of Leuke (or “the white “). Then he proceeds as follows :—

“Below the White Island (Thoovak-kal) commences the kingdom of Keprobotas (Cheraputra) styled Limurike (Tamilakam) the first mart of which is Naoora, then Tundis (Thondi) a large village close to the shore; and next to these, Mooziris (Muchiri) a flourishing place frequented both by the native vessels from Ariake (Aryakam) and by the Greeks from Egypt. It lies upon a river, but at a distance of 20 stadia:^[7] and five hundred from Tundis (Thondi) the intermediate space is equal whether you measure by land from river to river or take the passage by sea. (Naoora, Tundis and Mooziris) are succeeded by Nelkunda which is in another province under the Government of Pandion. This mart is again five hundred stadia from Mooziris by measurement between the two rivers or by the road on shore or by the course of the vessel along the coast.

“Nelkunda (Nirkunram) lies on a river at the distance of a hundred and twenty stadia from the sea: but at the mouth of the river there is a village called Bakare (Vaikkarai near Kottayam) and here the vessels which come down from Nelkunda lie in an open road to receive their cargoes, for the river is full of shoals or mud banks and the channel between them is not deep. Both Nelkunda and Bakare are subject to a king who resides in the interior.

“There is a great resort of shipping to this port for pepper and betel: the merchants bring out a large quantity of spice and their other imports are topazes, a small assortment of plain cloth, stibium, coral, flint, glass, brass and lead, a small quantity of wine as profitable as at Barugaza, cinnabar, fine cloth, arsenic and wheat, not for sale but for the use ef the crew.

“The principal article obtained here is pepper, which is the staple of the country as growing in the interior; it is brought down to this port in preference to all others, and is of that species called Cottonarikon (Kuddanâdan); great quantities of the best pearl are likewise purchased here, ivory, silk in the web, spikenard from the Ganges, betel from the countries further to the east, transparent stones of all sorts. diamonds, rubies and tortoise shell from the golden Chersonese or from the islands off the coast of Limurike.

“The best season for the voyage is to leave Egypt in the month of July or Epiphi : and the voyage was originally performed in small vessels from Xane and Endaimon in Arabia which followed the coast during the whole passage. But Hippalos was the first navigator who discovered the direct course across the ocean by observing the position of the ports and the general appearance of the sea. For at the season when the annual winds peculiar to our climate settle in the north and blow, for a continuance upon our coast from the Mediterranean, in the Indian Ocean the wind is continually from the south-west. And this wind has in these seas obtained the name of Hippalos from the pilot who first took advantage of it to make his passage to the east.

“From the period of that discovery to the present time vessels bound to India take their departure either from Kane on the Arabian or Cape Aromata on the African side; and from these points they stretch out into the open sea at once, leaving all the windings of the gulfs and bays at a distance and make for their several destinations in the coast of India; those that are intended for Limurike waiting sometime before they sail, but those that are destined for Barugaza or Skythia seldom more than three days.

“Upon leaving Ela-bakara or the Ruddy mountain the country which succeeds is under the government of Pandion: it is called Paralia (Purali) and lies almost directly north and south it reaches to Kolkhoi (Korkai) in the vicinity of the pearl-fishery and Pandion is sovereign of the whole.

“But the first port after leaving the Ruddy mountain is Balita and next to that is Komar (Kumari) which has a fort and a harbour. This place is frequented for the purpose of ablution by those who have dedicated themselves to a religious life and taken a vow of celibacy. Women as well as men are admitted into this institution; and the legend respecting it reports that a goddess in some former period practised the same ablutions once a month at the spot.

“From Komar the district extends to Kolkhi and the pearl fishery which is conducted by slaves or criminals condemned to the service; and the whole southern point of the Continent is part of Pandyan’s dominion.

“The first place that succeeds after leaving Kolkhi is the bay Argalus connected with a district inland (of the same name). Here and here only the pearls obtained in the fishery at the island of Enidorus are (allowed to be) perforated and prepared for the market, and from the same island are procured the fine muslins sprinkled with pearls.

“Proceeding from Argalus the most conspicuous of all the marts and anchorages on the coast are Kamara, Padooka and Sopatma. To these the traders from Limurike and the other provinces north of Limurike resort; and in the marts are found the native vessels which make coasting voyages to Limurike, the Monoxala of the largest sort called Sangara, and others styled Colandiophonta, which are vessels of great bulk adapted to the voyages made to the Ganges and the Golden Chersonese.

“To these marts are brought all the articles prepared (in Egypt) for the market of Limurike: and almost all the species of which Egypt is continually drained by its trade with Limurike finally centres on this coast, as well as all the produce of Limurike itself.

“But after passing Limurike and the provinces next in succession the coast winds round to the east; and as the vessel takes this direction in her course, the island now called Palaisimoondus, but formerly Taprobane, lies out in the open sea to the west. The northern part of the island is civilized, but the passage to it from the Continent is seldom performed in less than twenty days. The whole extent is so large that it reaches almost to the opposite coast of Azainia (in Africa); and here pearls, precious stones, fine muslins and tortoise shells are to be obtained.

“But (returning now to the coast above Kamara, Padooka and Sopatma) lies Masalia, a district which extends far inland. In this country a great quantity of the finest muslins are manufactured; and from Masalia the coast lies eastward across a bay to Desarene, where the ivory is procured of that species called Bosarc.”^[8]

The western merchants who visited the Tamil land, were known as Yavanas. The word Yavana is derived from the Greek Iaones, which is the name of the Greek nation in their own language. In the old Sanscrit epic poetry, the word Yavana is invariably used to denote the Greeks.^[9] Similarly in ancient Tamil poems also the name Yavana appears to have been applied exclusively to the Greeks and Romans. The Poet Nakkirar addresses the Pandyan Prince Nan-rn aran in the following words: “0 Mara, whose sword is ever victorious! Spend thou thy days in peace and joy, drinking daily out of golden cups, presented by thy handmaids, the cool and fragrant wine brought by the Yavanas in their good ships.”^[10] The Yavanas alluded to by these poets were undoubtedly the Egyptian Greeks, because as stated in the Periplus, it was Greek merchants from Egypt who brought wine, brass, lead, glass, etc., for sale to Muchiri (Muziris) and Vaikkarai (Bakare) and who purchased from these ports pepper, betel, ivory, pearls and fine muslins. The Greeks sailed from Egypt in the month of July and arrived at Muchiri in about forty days. They stayed on the Malabar coast for about three months and commenced their return voyage from Muchiri in December or January. During their sojourn in Malabar, they would have naturally imparted much of their civilization to the Tamils. As the Indian seas were infested by pirates, the Greek merchants brought with them cohorts of archers on board their ships. Egypt being at this period subject to Rome, the archers who accompanied the Greek merchants must have been Roman soldiers. The superior arms and discipline of the Roman soldiers could not have failed to inspire in the Tamils a desire to become better acquainted with the Romans and to share their civilization. The Pandyan King was the first to realise the benefits of an alliance with the Romans. He sent two embassies to Cœsar, desiring to become his friend and ally. One of these reached Augustus when he was at Terracona in the eighteenth year after the death of Julius Cœsar (B. c. 26) and another six years afterwards (B. C. 20) when that Prince was at Samos. Roman soldiers were enlisted in the service of the Pandyas and other Tamil Kings. During the reign of the Pandya Aryap-padai-kadantha-Nedunj-cheliyan, Roman soldiers were employed to guard the gate of the fort of Madura.^[11] A poet of this period describes a Tamil King’s tent on a battle field as follows :—“ In a tent with double walls of canvas firmly held by iron chains, guarded by powerful Yavanas whose stern looks strike terror into every beholder, and whose long and loose coats are fastened at the waist by means of belts; while dumb Mlêchas clad in complete armour, who could express themselves only by gestures, kept close watch throughout the night in the outer chamber, constantly moving round the inner apartment which was lighted by a handsome lamp.”^[12] It is evident from this description that Yavana and other Mlêchas or foreigners, were employed as bodyguards by ancient Tamil Kings. Yavana vases and Yavana lamps with the figure of a swan on the top of each,^[13] or lamps in the shape of a female statue in a standing posture, holding with both hands the receptacle for oil and wick, appear to have been in common use in the Tamil country.^[14] There was a colony of Yavana merchants at Kavirip-paddinam which was the great emporium of trade on the Eastern Coast.^[15] The Roman trade with the Tamil land and other parts of India was carried on, on such a large scale that, as stated by Pliny, there was no year in which, India did not drain the Roman Empire of at least fifty- five millions of sesterces (£986,979) bending in return wares which were sold for a hundred times their original value.^[16] That Roman gold poured largely into the Tamil country at this period, is attested by the numerous Roman coins, dating from the reign of Augustus to that of Zeno (B. C. 27 to A. D. 491) which have been found buried in different parts of the Tamil land. According to the Peutingerian Tables, which are believed to have been constructed about 226 A. D.; the Romans even at that date are said to have had a force of two cohorts (840 to 1,200 men) at Muchiri to protect their trade, and they had also erected a temple to Augustus at the same place.^[17]

Of the trade with eastern nations no detailed accounts are available ; but there are many allusions in ancient Tamil poems to voyages undertaken by merchants and others to Nâgapuram in Châvakam (Sumatra or Java), Kâlakam in Burma and seaports in Ceylon and Bengal.

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1. Patala, at the head of the delta of the Indus, Mc Crindle’s Ptolemy, p. 146.
2. The modern Ghalla or Cella. McCrindle’s Perip1us, p. 84.
3. It has been identified with the port now called Hisn Ghorab. McCrindle's Periplus, p. 87.
4. This port, once the most celebrated and most frequented in Yemen is now the village Musa about 25 miles north from Mokha. MoCrindle’s Periplus, p. 78.
5. The metropolis of the Arabs of Yemen. It is now Dhafar or Dsoffer or Zaphar. McCrindle’s Periptus, p. 80.
6. Malabar Manual. Vol I, pp. 250.251. E. H. Bunbury’s History of Ancient Geography, Vol. II., pp. 418-419. Pliny’s natural History, vi., 23.
7. The Olympic stadium which was in general use throughout Greece contained 600 Greek feet, which were equal to 65 Roman feet or 606⁠3/4⁠ English feet. An English mile is equal to about 8⁠2/3⁠ stadia. McCrindle’s Ptolemy, p. 4
8. The Periplus of the Erythrœan Sea and Voyage of Nearchus, translated by William Vincent, D.D., p. 105 ff.
9. Weber’s History of Indian Literature, p. 220.
10. Puram, 56. The old commentator of the Puranânûru interprets the words Yaranar nan kalam thantha to mean “brought by Yavanas in bottles.” The Hon. P. Coomara Swamy of Colombo, has pointed out that the word kalam may mean bottles or ships. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch, Vol. XIII, No. 45.
11. Chilapp-athikaram, XIV. 11. 66-67.
12. Mullaip-pâddu, 11. 59-66.
13. Perum-pânârrup-padai, 11. 316-317.
14. Nedu-nal-vâdai, 1. 101.
15. Chilapp-atihikaram, Vol. 10.
16. Ante p. 32.
17. Malabar Manual, Vol, I., p.199.