The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago/Chapter 9

by Visvanatha Kanakasabhai Pillai

CHAPTER IX.

Social Life

From the foregoing brief history of the three kings and their subordinate chiefs it will be seen that they were frequently at war with each other and that their subjects lived in the midst of wars and wars’ alarms. It may well be asked therefore how it was possible for the arts of peace to flourish under such conditions. The answer is simple. It was only the men, trained to the profession of arms, who engaged in war, while the rest of the people resided within walled towns, and followed unmolested their different callings. The poorer classes who lived in villages remote from the capital towns were exposed to frequent attacks from the neighbouring chiefs and suffered terrible hardships. Their cattle were carried away, their houses were burnt down and they were driven out of the village or slaughtered if they offered the least resistance. The large population of the great cities such as Madura, Karur and Kavirippaddinaai enjoyed however almost perfect immunity from the horrors of war. The inhabitants of most of the important towns, which were strongly fortified, were likewise secure from the evils attending an occupation by a hostile army. It was in these fortified towns-that trade and manufactures were carried on to the mutual advantage of the artisans and the public. Caravans of merchants travelled from town to town escorted by soldiers. The principal thoroughfares in the interior of the country were guarded by the king’s soldiers and tolls were levied on these highways. The system of Government, which was far from despotic, also conduced to the public welfare.

The head of the Government was a hereditary monarch. His power was restricted by five councils, who were known as the “Five Great Assemblies.”^[1] They consisted of the representatives of the people, priests, physicians, astrologers or augurs and ministers. The council of representatives safe-guarded the rights and privileges of the people: the priests directed all religious ceremonies: the physicians attended to all matters affecting the health of the king and his subjects: the astrologers fixed auspicious times for public ceremonies and predicted important events: the ministers attended to the collection and expenditure of the revenue and the administration of justice.^[2] Separate places were assigned in the capital town, for each of these assemblies, for their meetings and transaction of business.^[3] On important occasions they attended the king's levee in the throne hall or joined the royal procession. It will be very interesting to know more of the constitution of the "Five Great Assemblies;" but no further information is available in the ancient poems which are now extant. The power of Government was entirely vested in the king and in the "Five Great Assemblies." It is most remarkable that this system of Government was followed in the three kingdoms of the Pandya, Chola and Chera, although they were independent of each other. There is reason to believe therefore that they followed this system of Government which obtained in the country from which the founders of the "three kingdoms" had originally migrated, namely, the Magadha Empire.

The person of the king was surrounded with much pomp and dignity. He was served by a numerous company of attendants. They are frequently mentioned as "the eight groups of attendants" which were as follow:–^[4]

Perfumers, garland-makers, betel-bearers, arecanut-servers, armourers, dressing valets, torch or light-bearers and body-guards.

The king wore a long crown of a conical shape made of gold and set with precious stones. Armlets of gold on his arms, an anklet of gold on the right leg, and a necklace of pearls or precious stones were the other principal ornaments usually worn by him. A superb umbrella adorned with strings of pearls was held over him while he was seated on his throne, or wherever he went outside his palace. He generally rode on an elephant or on horseback or on a chariot drawn by horses. Big drums resounded at his palace gate, early at dawn and at sunset. Time criers were employed in the palace to cry out the end of each Ni tikai which was reckoned by hour-glasses.^[5]

A portion of the palace was always set apart for the use of the queen and her attendants. She did not wear a crown unless she had inherited the monarchy in her own right. On all public occasions, she took her seat on the throne along with the king; but her apartments in the palace were not accessible to males.^[6] Dwarfs and hunch-backs and eunuchs besides a number of noble maidens waited upon her.^[7] The attendants of the Chera queen Venmâl who accompanied her, when she came to meet her husband Chenkkudduvan, on her palace terrace, on a moon-light night, are described as follows in the Chillap-athikâram^[8]:—

“Some of the maids came singing sweetly, sounding the drum or the lute: dwarfs and hunch-backs carried musk and sandal ointments: eunuchs clothed in women’s dress, brought fragrant pastes and powders: some held in their hands scents and incense, garlands of flowers and soft cushions: some carried mirrors, garments and jewels : while other maids, who wore bracelets which glittered in the light of the lamps they bore, shouted ‘long live the queen’!”

The principal officers of State were the high priest, the chief astrologer, the ministers and the commanders of the army.^[9] There were special officers appointed to perform the duties of Judges and Magistrates: but the king was the supreme and final arbiter in all civil and criminal cases. The presiding Judge in each Court wore a peculiar headgear by which he was distinguished from other officers of the Court.^[10] Justice was administered free of charge to the suitors; but the punishments were very severe and hence crimes were rare. A thief arrested with the stolen property in his possession was beheaded.^[11] A man caught in the act of adultery was killed.^[12] One who had trespassed into another’s dwelling with the intention of committing adultery, had his legs cut off.^[13] Superstitious fears sometimes led the kings to commit acts of great cruelty in the name of justice. The orders of the king which concerned the people were proclaimed throughout his capital city with beat of drums, by officers riding on elephants.^[14]

Customs, tolls and land-tax formed the chief sources of revenue. Customs were levied at all the sea-ports, where the goods landed were impressed with a seal bearing the royal emblem, and were removed to the merchant’s warehouses after payment of duty.^[15] Tolls were collected on the trunk-roads used by caravans and at the frontier of each kingdom.^[16] The land-tax was paid in money or in kind at the option of the farmer. The tribute paid by vassal chiefs and princes, the booty gained in border expeditions, and the profits of royal demesnes, such as the pearl fishery, wild elephants and forest produce, also formed a considerable portion of the king’s income. One-sixth of the produce on land was the legitimate share of the king: and for water supplied by the state a water cess was levied from the farmers.

The king was the head of society as well as of the Government. He freely mixed with the people, though surrounded as usual by his bodyguards and other attendants. He took the lead in every festivity in his capital; and in times of famine or pestilence he was foremost to perform penances or sacrifices. He shared the joys and sorrows of the people, or at least, the etiquette of the Court compelled him to do so. The people were so much attached to some of their sovereigns, that there were instances of the population of whole villages forsaking their homes and fields, and settling within the territory of their own king, when an invader had taken possession of their villages.^[17] On every festive occasion, whether in the public temples or in private dwellings, prayers were offered by the people for victory and long life to their king. “ May (our king) Athan live for ever! may (our King) Avini live for ever! So prayed my mother,” says a maiden to her companion, on her return from the temple, “but, I prayed in silence, may (my lover) the lord of many a fertile field return home speedily.”^[18]

The distinction of the four castes Brahma, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra, observed by the Aryas, did not exist amongst the Tamils. The expression “twice-born” applied by Aryans to those who were sanctified by the investiture of the sacred thread, was always used in Ancient Tamil literature to denote only the Brahmins, and it is evident therefore that the Kshatriya and Vaisya who wore the sacred thread were not known in Tamilakam. Amongst the pure Tamils the class most honoured was that of the Arivar or “sages.” They pretended to know the three stages of time, that is, the past, present and future. They led a retired and religious life, dwelling outside the great towns. While the Brahmins were not unwilling to mix in the society of courtezans and prostitutes,^[19] and acted as messengers between lovers, the “sages” strictly avoided them.^[20]

Next in rank to the Arivar were the Ulavar or farmers. The Arivar were ascetics: but of the men living in society, the farmers occupied the highest position. They formed the nobility, or the landed aristocracy, of the country. They were also called the Vellâlar, “lords of the flood,” or Karalar, “lords of the clouds,” titles expressive of their skill in controlling floods and in storing water for agricultural purposes. The Chera, Chola and Pandyan kings, and most of the petty chiefs of Tamilakam belonged to the tribe of Vellâlas. The poor families of Vellâlas who owned small estates were generally spoken of as the Veelkudi- Ulavar or “the fallen Vellâlas,” implying thereby that the rest of the Vellâlas were wealthy land-holders.^[21] When Karikâl the Great defeated the Aruvâlar and annexed their territory to his kingdom, he distributed the conquered lands amongst Vellâla chiefs.^[22] The descendants of some of these chiefs are to this day in possession of their Lands, which they hold as petty Zemindars under the British Government.^[23] They are now known as Mudalis or the First Caste.” The Vellâla families who conquered Vadukam, or the modern Telugu country, were called Velamas, and the great Zemindars there still belong to the Velama caste. In the Canarese country, the Vellâlas founded the Bellàl dynasty which ruled that country for several centuries. The Vellâlas were also called the Gangakula or Gangavamsa, because they derived their descent from the great and powerful tribe named Gangàridœ which inhabited the valley of the Ganges, as mentioned b Pliny and Ptolemy. A portion of Mysore which was peopled mostly by Vellâlas was called Gangavâdi in the tenth and eleventh centuries of the Christian era. Another dynasty of kings of this tribe who ruled Orissa in the eleventh and twelfth centuries was known as the Gangavamsa.

Tho Aiyar and Vedduvar, or the shepherds and huntsmen, were next in rank to the Ulaver.^[24] Below the shepherds were the artizans such as Goldsmiths, Blacksmiths, Carpenters, Potters &c., and after them came the military class that is the Padai-ddchier or the armed men. Last of all were the Valayar and Pulayar or the fishermen and scavengers.

When men of the higher classes passed in the streets, the lower classes made way for them.^[25] The Pulayan or scavenger on meeting a nobleman bowed before him, with both his hands joined in a posture of supplication.^[26] Slavery was however unknown amongst the Tamils, and this is strong evidence of their superior civilisation in this early period.

The division of classes amongst the Tamils as described above bears a striking resemblance to that of the people of the ancient Magadha Empire as recorded by Megasthenes. According to him, the population was divided into seven classes. The first in rank were the philosophers: but in point of number they formed the smallest class. They were engaged by private persons to offer sacrifices and to perform other sacred rites. The king invited them at the beginning of the year to his palace, and at a great gathering they forewarned the multitudes about drought and wet weather, and about calamities which may befall the State. These sages went about naked, living during winter in the open air to enjoy the sunshine, and during summer in meadows and low grounds under shady trees. The second class consisted of the husbandmen who devoted the whole of their time to tillage. They paid a fourth part of the produce of their soil, as tribute to their king. Herdsmen and hunters formed the third class. They led a wandering life tending their cattle on the hills, and living in tents. They paid their tribute in cattle, and received an allowance in grain from the king for clearing the land of wild beasts and birds which devour the seeds sown in the fields. The fourth class comprised those who worked at trades, vended wares, or were employed as labourers. Armourers and all artizans came under this class. The fighting men formed the fifth class. They were maintained at the king’s expense, and had only military duties to perform. In times of peace they spent their time in idleness and drinking. The sixth class consisted of overseers, whose business it was to spy out what was going on in country and town, and report everything to the king or the magistrate. The seventh class consisted of councillors who advised the king or the magistrates of self-governed cities in the management of public affairs. The custom of the country forbade intermarriages between the classes, and no one was allowed to change from one class to another. For instance, a husband- man cannot become a herdsman, nor can he take a wife from the herdsman or artizan class. An exception was made in favour of the philosopher alone, who may be from any class, for his life was not an easy one, and few attained the gift of prophecy.^[27]

In the above description of the classes of society in ancient Magadha, Megasthenes was clearly mistaken in reckoning spies or overseers and councillors as separate classes. The other classes correspond exactly with those amongst the ancient Tamils. This division of society amongst the Tamils and Magadhas seems to show that they belonged to a nation which had emerged out of barbarism at a very remote period, and had enjoyed a settled form of Government, free from violence and bloodshed, for several centuries. Their civilization was certainly older than that of the Ariyas, for amongst the latter the fighting men were next in rank to the priests, whereas amongst the Tamils, the farmers were next to the religious men, and the military class was below even that of the herdsmen and artizans.

The Brahmins who had begun to settle in Tamilakam, at least five or six centuries earlier than the period which I describe, tried to foist their caste system on the Tamils. In the earliest Tamil Grammar extant, which was composed by a Brahmin named Tholkâppiyan, in the first or second century B.C., frequent allusions are made to the Arivar or “Sages.”^[28] But in the chapter in which he describes the classes of society, the author omits all mention of the Arivar, and places the Brahmins who wear the sacred thread as the first caste.^[29] The kings, he says very guardedly, and not warriors, form the second caste, as if the three kings Chera, Chola and Pandya could form a caste; all who live by trade belong to the third caste. He does not say that either the kings or the merchants wear the sacred thread. Then he singles out the Vellâlas and states that they have no other calling than the cultivation of the soil. Here he does not say that the Vellâlas are Sudras, but indirectly implies that the ordinary Vellâlas should be reckoned as Sudras, nd that those Vellalas who were kings should be honored as Kshatriyas. This is the first attempt made by the Brahmins to bring the Tamils under their caste system. But in the absence of the Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra castes in Tamilakam, they could not possibly succeed; and to this day the Vellâla does not take meals or drink water at the house of a Padaiyadchi, who calls himself a Kshatriya or a merchant who passes for a Vaisya. Tholkâppiyan alludes also, in his grammar, to the Ayar and Vedduvar, or the shepherds and huntsmen, but in the chapter on castes, he makes no mention either of them or of the Maravar, Valaiyar, Pulaiyar and other classes, as he could not do it without being inconsistent to the Brahmimcal division of castes

The dress worn by the Taniil people varied according to their rank in society and the race to which they belonged. Men of the middle classes, amongst the pure Tamils, ordinarily wore two pieces of cotton cloth, one wrapped round the loins, and reaching to the knees and the other loosely tied round the head.^[30] They did not cut their hair but allowed it to grow to its natural length, and gathered it up on the crown of the head or tied it in a large knot on one side. Coloured strings of silk with glittering blue beads were used by the higher classes to fasten the head knot, and the ends of the strings were allowed to hang like a tassel.^[31] A Marava chieftain who belonged to the Naga race wore a cloth bound to his waist by a blue strap, and had peacock feathers stuck in his head.^[32] Brahmins cropped their hair leaving a small tuft on the top of the head. A Tamil poet compares the tuft of hair on a horse’s head to the short hair on the heads of Brahmin youths.^[33] The soldiers employed to guard the public thoroughfares, and the servants in the king’s palace wore coats.^[34] In this ancient period, a full dress appears to have been the outward sign of a servant rather than of a master: and the nobles put on only so much clothing as can be worn without discomfort in a hot climate.

In the ordinary dress of the Tamil woman, the shoulders, arms and body down to the waist were entirely bare, the drapery descending from the loins downwards to the ankles.^[35] The part of the body which was left uncovered was generally adorned with sandal and other fragrant powders.^[36] The Naga women appear to have been almost naked like those depicted in the Amaravati sculptures. The courtezans wore a piece of muslin which covered their body from the waist to the middle of the thigh: but it was of such fine texture that it hardly concealed their person.^[37] The women of the hill tribes wore bunches of green leaves tied to a string round their waist.^[38] The wives of wandering minstrels called Pânar, who accompanied their husbands during their travels, are described as perfectly nude.^[39] In fact, nudity does not appear to have been a disgrace in ancient India.

The Tamil women wore their hair in a peculiar fashion. They divided it into five parts, twisted or plaited each part separately, and tied up the five tufts allowing the ends to hang down the back of the head in the manner they considered most graceful. They seem to have bestowed much care on the training of the hair, for it is stated that it was the custom for young girls to crop their hair with scissors, so close as to expose the skin of the head leaving five small tufts far apart from each other: and as the girls grew up, they gradually extended the tufts till they covered the whole surface of the head.^[40] This custom of women dividing their hair into five parts, before tying it up, still exists, as I understand, amongst the Burmese. It was never adopted by the Aryan women, and has now disappeared altogether amongst the Tamils.

All classes, both of men and women, applied oils to their hair. The women frequently used scents in dressing it, and ornamented it with a variety of flowers and jewellery.

Both sexes perfumed their persons with different kinds of fragrant oils, and adorned their skins with a variety of powders, of a red or yellow colour.^[41] The women painted their eyelids with a black pigment.^[42] In the houses of the higher orders, incense of benjamin, and other odoriferous gums was generally burnt.^[43] Although their clothing was scanty, the Tamil people indulged in a profusion of ornaments. Various ornaments worn round the neck, arms and waist formed the most splendid part of their costume. The chieftains and wealthy landholders wore a necklace of precious gains or pearls, and massive armlets made of gold. Men of royal descent and petty chiefs wore in addition an anklet on their leg, as a mark of special distinction. The attire of the son of a chieftain is described as follows:– “On his feet are anklets made of a row of tiny bells, hanging from a double cord or twist of gold. Bound his waist are a belt of golden coins, and a string of bright coral beads, and over these a piece of fine muslin tied round the loins. On his arms are two arm-rings, handsomely engraved, with fret-work raised like the eyes of a crab. From his neck hangs a double cord of gold with a toy sword and a toy axe, and a brooch bearing the figure of a bull, strung on it. On his head is a triple cord of pearls and golden beads, and above it a wreath of flowers, wound with a string of shining blue beads.”^[44]

Amongst the lower classes, the women wore bracelets made of the conch shell, and a necklace made of white and blue beads, and other cheap trinkets: while those of the middle classes used mostly golden ornaments, silver being very rare in Southern India at this period. The jewels worn by wealthy families were very costly, and those used by public actresses were most magnificent. The following description of the apparel of an actress which occurs in the Chilapp-athikâram, will convey some idea of this luxury and display of jewels. She bathed her tresses in a perfumed oil, which was extracted from the juice of 32 kinds of plants, 5 scents and 10 astringents: and having dried them over the smoke of the Aghil she parted them into five tufts, and applied a fragrant ointment made of musk. She painted her feet with red cotton, and put pretty rings on her little toes. On her feet she wore an ornament resembling a string of petals overlapping each other, and extending from the ankle to the big toe and on the ankle itself she wore four anklets, one of which consisted of a row of little golden bells, and another of golden wire plaited in a beautiful design. On her thighs she tied the thigh clasp. Round her waist she wrapped in graceful folds a piece of fine blue coloured muslin, and over it she fastened a girdle of two and thirty strings of lustrous pearls. Above her elbows, she wore superb armlets made of brilliant gems and pearls chased in gold, and on her fore-arms, various bracelets, some made of polished shells, and some of coral; some of plain gold and some exquisitely engraved and set with diamonds and emeralds. Rings of various patterns she put on her fingers: one shaped like the mouth of a makara, and another which had a big emerald in the centre and a row of diamonds set round it. On her neck she wore many kinds of necklaces (which covered her bosom from the neck to the navel) : one of them was like a golden chain; another like a twisted cord; another was a string of beautiful beads, and another a string of pendant golden leaves. A splendid clasp, which covered the back of her neck, held the necklaces in their position. Her ear-rings were set alternately with large diamonds and sapphires. On her head she fastened a net-work of ornaments which exceeded in beauty all her other jewels.”^[45]

Women mixed freely though modestly in the business and amusements of social life. In towns and cities, women of the poor classes were employed as hawkers, vendors, and shopkeepers or as servants in rich households; and in the villages they worked in the fields and gardens along with men, and shared their hardships. The ladies of the higher classes were more confined to their homes, but they were not secluded from Society. From the queen downwards every woman visited the temples. During the evenings they came out on the terraces of their houses, and saw the scenes in the street: and o festive occasions, they joined the processions, and went out to invite their friends and relations.^[46] Owing to the freedom enjoyed by women, it was possible for young people to court each other before marriage. It was not considered improper for a young lady even to elope with her lover, provided they returned to their relations afterwards, and entered into a married life. Love, and not the greed of gold, ruled the court, the camp and the grove, in those days; and the behaviour of the sexes towards each other, among the Tamils, was far more polite and courteous than it is at the present day. It is no matter for wonder, therefore, that much of the poetry of this ancient period treats of love, and that rules for writing amatory poems were already in use. The courtship of young people was such an old and established custom with the Tamils that in the great treatise on moral and social ethics,^[47] composed by the poet Tiruvalluvar, during this period, one of the three parts of the work is devoted to love affairs. The custom has not yet died out entirely in Tamilakam, as it still survives to some extent on the Malabar Coast. The relations of the sexes can best be described in the words of the ancient poets themselves, and I therefore give below a translation of a few extracts from love poems.

The following words are addressed by a girl to her friend, who questions her on her conduct towards her lover :—“ Askest thou whether, as my neighbours say, I have given my heart to that noble youth, who watches me while I bathe in the river, visits me at my house, attends on me tenderly, sets right the jewels that I wear, and paints my shoulders with sandal paste. Listen to what I tell thee! Long I have strayed with him on the seashore, plucking the stout weeds that grow there, till the tips of my fingers became red, thou sayest: but it was all for a doll which he made with the weeds for me. It is strange that thou art so simple as to believe the tales of my neighbours, who are never happy when they cannot talk scandal. Afraid to meet thy curious eye, I retraced my steps from my house, and he, finding me come back, culled some flowers growing in the marsh and formed them into a garland, and offered it to me. Is it for this trivial mark of attention on his part that thou, without chiding those who sent thee here with false tales, hast come to question me? He did paint on my shoulders beautifully, with sandal paste, the figure of a stalk of sugarcane, telling me that I knew not how to paint it. Is it for this little act of courtesy, that thou gave ear to the idle gossip of my playmates, and worried thyself?”^[48]

Here is an example of a wayward and mischievous youth who develops into a violent lover, and of whom a girl speaks to her companion—” Listen to me, my friend I Knowest thou that wicked youth, who knocks down our toy houses, tears the garlands from our hair, snatches away the ball with which we play in the street, and gives us no end of trouble? One day, while I and my mother were busy in our house, he came in and said be was thirsty. ‘Give him a cup of water,’ said my mother, and I, forgetting his evil ways, took a cup of water to him. Suddenly he seized me by the arm and tried to embrace me, but I cried out ‘Lo! mother, behold what this youth has done.’ Hearing my cry, my mother rushed to the place where we were standing, and I told her (a lie) that he was choked while drinking water. Then, as my mother stroked his back, that son of a thief darted a look at me, as if he would stab me, and made me laugh.”^[49]

There is more of romance in the love scenes in the hill and sylvan tracts. “While I and my mistress were bathing one day in a stream which was swollen with freshes, she slipped into the middle of the stream and unable to stem the current, she was being carried down the river, when a gallant youth who, saw the danger, leaped into the flood, decked as he was with garlands, and bore her safely to the bank. Others who stood by, observed that they had seen her swelling bosom rest on his broad shoulders, and hearing these words my mistress vowed that she would be ever faithful to that youth. He was the son of a chief of a powerful clan of the hill-tribes. “Never,” said I, “will a Kurava girl be false to her lover, and never will the arrow shot by a Kurava be false to its mark. If ye, mountaineers are false, the valli creeper would not yield its edible root, the honey bees would not form their hives, and your hill farm yield no harvest.” Her mother who heard my words, told them to her fathers,^[50] who had thought of seeing her wed another youth of their choice. Their wrath was kindled and with eyes aflame they chose their arrows and their bows, and a whole day they thought of deeds of vengeance. But when they found that there was no fault in either party they cooled down and consented to their daughter wedding her lover. Then with joined hands we danced the Kuravai........................ Later on the elders of the clan gathered in our hamlet, led by the Arivan, to celebrate the wedding.”^[51]

The above is an instance of a chaste and noble-minded maiden, and what follows is an illustration of a wanton and forward girl of the period.

“Thou damsel whose eyes are as dark as the flower of the Kaya! Many a day has a youth, decked with pretty garlands and armed with a bow, appeared before me, as if he was chasing some game, and gazed at me long and fondly, and vanished from my sight without ever uttering a word. The thought of him has driven sleep from my eyes, and I am pining with grief. He speaks not of his love, except with his eyes, and I being a woman am too shy to let him know how deeply I love him. Unable to bear the pangs of a secret love I did an act of which am ashamed. One day while I was seated on a swing, by the side of our farm, he appeared before me as usual, and I called out to him and said, “Sir, swing me a little while.” “I will do so, sweet maid” replied he, and was swinging me, when I pretended to slip from the swing, and fell on his shoulder. He caught me up in his arms at once, and I lay on his shoulder as if in a swoon. He held me fast and when at last I awoke, he bade me go, caressing me fondly and making me happy in the assurance that he loved me fervently.” ^[52]

One of the most curious customs alluded to in ancient love poems is that of a disappointed lover proclaiming his love in the public streets and committing suicide. When a youth who had fallen desperately in love with a girl, found that she did not return his affections, he took the long stalk of a palmyra leaf and adorned it, like a horse, with a bell and peacock-feathers and garlands, and tying a string to one end of it, in the form of a bridle, he rode on it. through the streets singing the praises of the girl he loved^[53] Seeing this, the girl herself sometimes relented or her relations persuaded her to marry him; but if, notwithstanding this public exposure of his love, the girl remained indifferent towards him, he put an end to his life by throwing himself down from a precipice.

Every town and village had its street of harlots, and in !he great cities, there were also courtezans who were educated and accomplished women and were the mistresses of wealthy nobles. The courtezans honoured by the special regard of the king were allowed to travel in carriages or palanquins, to visit the royal parks, to use betel boxes made of gold and fans made of the white tail of the yak, and to be escorted by guards armed with scimitars, when going out of their houses.^[54] Though intercourse with other’s wives was treated as a serious crime and severely punished, it was not considered indecent for a youth to visit harlots or courtezans, to stroll with them in the parks, or to bathe and sport with them in the public bathing places.

Boys were considered marriageable at sixteen and girls at twelve years of age.^[55] The love poems of this period furnish. many instances of young girls, who had not given up their toys and dolls, being courted by lovers. It was doubtless this custom of early marriages which Megasthenes exaggerates when he relates that “the women of the Pandian realm bear children when they are six years of age.”^[56] Amongst the higher classes marriages were solemnized with Brahininical rites. A few days before the marriage, young girls decked with jewels and mounted on an elephant, went round to their friends and relations and invited them to attend the ceremony. In the front of the bride’s house, a spacious and lofty shed was erected and the ceiling was covered with blue cloth and decorated with strings of flowers. On the auspicious day fixed for the marriage, a Brahmin priest lighted the sacred fire under the shed, while drums and pipes and chanks sent forth their music; and the bride and bridegroom were led round the sacred fire three times. A number of damsels bearing lighted lamps and trays of incense, flowers and fragrant powders then strewed flowers on the wedded pair and escorted them with songs and blessings to their bridal chamber.^[57] Among the lower classes residing in towns and among the hill tribes, who had not come under Brahmin influence, the marriage ceremony was performed by the Arivar or Tamil priests.^[58]

Except during marriages and, other domestic occurrences, there was, as a rule, no family gathering at meal time and each individual took his meals at the time most convenient to himself. The diet was extremely plain. Rice was the staple article of food, and milk, butter and honey were in common use. The various kinds of food on which different classes of society subsisted are given in the following account of a wandering minstrel. “The Eyinar or hunters served him with coarse rice of a red colour and the flesh of the Guana, on the broad leaf of the teak tree. The shepherds gave him maize and beans and millet boiled in milk. In the agricultural tracts the laborers invited him to a meal of white rice and the roasted flesh of the fowl. On the sea coast, the fishermen fed him with rice and fried fish in dishes made of palmyra leaves. The Brahmins gave him fine rice with mango pickle and the tender fruits of the pomegranate cooked with butter and the fragrant leaves of the Karuvembu; and the Ulavar or farmers feasted him with sweet- meats and the fruits of the jack and plantain and the cooling water of the cocoanut. In the toddy shops he was regaled with toddy and the fried flesh of the male pig. which had been fattened by being confined in a pit and fed for many days on rice flour.”^[59] Toddy drawn from the cocoanut palm was drunk by the poor classes such as labourers, soldiers and wandering minstrels.^[60] Scented liquors manufactured from rice and the flowers of the Thathaki (Bauhinia Tomentosa) and other fragrant substances were used by the richer classes.^[61] Cool and fragrant wines brought by Yavana (or Greek) ships, which must have been therefore very costly, were the favorite drink of the kings.^[62]

Quail fights, dances, musical entertainments and religious festivities appear to have been the chief sources of amusement to the masses of the people. Women amused themselves at home with teaching parrots, singing the Vallai or Ammanai, rocking on swings and playing the games of Thayam, Kalanku or Panthu, Thayam was the same as the modern game of dice; but the blocks of dice used were circular in shape, like the shell of a crab marked with black spots, and not rectangular cubes like those now in use. The game of Kalanku was played with seven tiny balls, each of the size of an areca-nut and the players who remained seated, threw up the balls first one at a time, then two, then three and so on up to seven at a time and caught them either on the palm or on the back of the hand. In the game of Panthu, balls of the size of a lime fruit were used, and the players struck the balls with their hands running forwards and backwards or wheeling round, according to the motion of the balls.^[63]

The science and practice of the fine arts were highly developed amongst the ancient Tamils. The study of music was an essential part of a liberal education and the Tamils excelled in soft melodies which had a gentle and soothing effect. The gamut consisted of seven notes which were named, Tharam, Ulai, Kural, Ili, Thutham, Vilari and Kaikkilai.^[64] The principal tunes or airs were four in number :— Palai, Kurinji, Marutham and Chevvali ^[65]—and each tune had many variations, making in all 103 distinct tunes which were recognized in the musical treatises of the period. The different parts in music, bass, tenor and treble were also understood, ; they were not however sung together but one after another in succession. A great variety of wind instruments were in use. Chank shells which gave a deep swelling sound were used in temples and in marriage and funeral processions. The flute which had eight holes in it was capable of considerable modulation. Single and double faced drums and pipes of various kinds, accompanied the lute in every musical concert. There were four kinds of lutes. The smallest in size and one most commonly used had seven wires :^[66] the other kinds had fourteen, seventeen and twenty-one wires each.^[67] While being played, the lute was held, in the left hand, four fingers of which rested on the screw pins and the ‘wires were sounded with one or the other of the fingers of the right hand, excepting the thumb.^[68] Tamil and Aryan systems of music are alluded to, showing thereby that the two systems were distinct from each other; and that both were studied by those who wished to perfect themselves in music.

Dancing was cultivated as a fine art and there were textbooks already composed, in which rules were given in detail for the performance of the several kinds of dancing then in vogue. These books are not now extant; but much information regarding dancing is available in the Chilappathikaram from which it appears that there were two kinds of plays, Aryan and Tamil. Of the Aryan plays eleven are mentioned and they represented the following mythological events :–^[69]

(1) Siva burning Tripura.

(2) Siva mounting the chariot, brought by Brahma to take him to Tripura.

(3) Krishna crushing the elephant sent by Kamsa.

(4) Krishna wrestling with and killing Bânâsura.

(5) Skanda defeating the Asura in Lanka.

(6) Skanda fighting with the Asura army.

(7) Krishna destroying the fort of Bânâsura.

(8) Kâmadeva disguised as a eunuch entering the fort of Bânâsnra to save his son Aniruddha.

(9) Durga crushing the Asuras.

(10) Lakshmi deceiving the Asuras.

(11) Ayrani, the wife of Indra, appearing before the northern gate of the fort of Bânâsura.

Of the Tamil plays there were numerous kinds :— Some of them were in praise of the gods or kings and of their achievements; some in mimicry of men or animals ; and some represented love scenes. Besides these the Kuravai dance, in which, seven, eight or nine persons danced together, standing in a ring, and clasping each other’s hands, was a favourite form of amusement. Both men and women joined in this dance and accompanied it with songs of love or war.^[70] Most of these plays were acted by dancing girls or actresses. The education of an actress commenced as early as her fifth year and was continued for seven years. The curriculum of her studies, as given in ancient poems would do credit to any accomplished lady of the present day. She was taught to dance and sing and carry herself gracefully. ‘In addition to this she was taught to play on the lute, the drum and the flute, to sing songs composed in foreign tongues, to draw pictures, to sport in the bath, to adorn the person with powders of bright colors, to make pretty garlands, to deck herself with jewels, to arrange and beautify the bed, to calculate the divisions of time, to know what was appropriate for each season, to discuss the chief points of the various sciences, to propose puzzles, to solve problems and to read the thoughts of others !^[71] In short she learnt everything that was calculated to amuse and please, to dazzle and captivate the minds of men. In her twelfth year she made her first entry on the stage, in the presence of the monarch and the noblemen of the city. She was accompanied by a poet who could improvise verses suited to the occasion, a music master who could set the poet’s words to music, a lute-player, a flute-player, and a drummer who were all trained men in their respective callings. The stage was in the form of a platform two feet high, fourteen feet broad and sixteen feet long. At a height of eight feet above the platform, was erected a canopy which rested on pillars. Figures of guardian deities were set up above the canopy, and painted curtains were hung up on all sides of the platform. The performance commenced after nightfall when the theatre was brilliantly lighted. The front part of the platform to the breadth of 6 feet was reserved for the actress; behind her stood two or three old actresses who prompted her in her performance; and behind these stood a few songsters, who sang at intervals to relieve the actress. The musicians such as the drummer, the lute and flute-players stood in the last row. As the curtains were drawn up, the actress appeared on the stage, decorated in her best costume, and literally blazing with jewels, in which burnished gold and brilliant diamonds seemed to emit a thousand rays. She began the performance with a hymn which she sang in silvery tones, invoking the gods for their blessings and for their aid to ward off all evil. Then she went through a choice programme of songs and dances, throwing her body and limbs into, every graceful attitude which the most flexible form was capable of exhibiting Her youth and beauty, her witching voice and graceful person, the brilliant lights and the soft strains of music won the audience and the king presented her with a gold necklace of the value of 1,008 gold coins which was the highest award given on such occasions.^[72]

In the arts of painting and sculpture also the Tamils had acquired a considerable degree of proficiency. Figures of gods, men and animals were painted with a variety of colors on the walls of private houses and public buildings, such as temples and palaces.2 The curtains used in bedrooms and theatres, and the cloth cased used for the lute and other musical instruments were beautifully painted in imitation of flowers and creepers.^[73] Very pretty dolls were made out of wood or the soft pith of the Kidai.^[74] In the temples and monasteries, there wee images of gods and goddesses made of mortar and painted so exquisitely that the superstitious worshippers believed that the cunning hand of the painter had endowed them with the power to grant their prayers. No mention is made however of images or statues made of such enduring materials as stone or metal!; and this accounts for the total absence in the Tamil-land of any relics of sculpture more ancient than those at Mamallaipuram, which were executed in the seventh or eighth century A. D.

The houses of the poor classes were built of mud and thatched with grass or with the leaves of the cocoanut or palmyra palm : and their walls were painted with red earth. Most of the houses in the towns were built of brick and had tiled roofs the walls were plastered with lime, and small windows shaped like the eye of the deer admitted light and air into the inner compartments. The gateway or portico, which was always a conspicuous part of the house, was approached by a flight of steps from the street and wide piazzas erected on both sides of the entrance afforded seats for visitors or the inmates of the house, during their leisure hours.^[75] The gateway was generally distinct from the main building, and in the open space or court-yard between it and the house, stalls were erected for the shelter of the sheep, cows and other cattle belonging to the owner of the house. The mansions of the wealthy citizens, had terraces and towers and separate bed rooms for the summer and winter seasons. Furniture of various descriptions was in use, such as raised seats, cots with canopies and cushions stuffed with swan’s down, lamps borne by statues, and swings for the amusement of women and children. The temples and palaces were also built of brick : and no buildings of stone are alluded to in the literature of this period except some of the great fortresses, the walls, ramparts and towers of which were constructed with rough hewn stone and mortar.

All the villages and towns were more or less fortified against the attacks of robbers and enemies. Every village was defended by a thick fence of thorny trees: and every town fortified with a wall and ditch and a broad belt of thorny jungle surrounding the ditch. In the great forts of Madura, Karur and Kanchi, many curious engines were mounted on the battlements to shoot arrows or to fling stones on those that besiege them. There were machines like the fishing rod and angle to catch and drag up those that approach the wall : and like iron fingers to seize and tear them to pieces. There were, besides, furnaces from which hot oil and molten metal might be poured on those that attempt to scale the wall: and iron spokes and spears to shove down those that might succeed in mounting the ramparts.^[76] The arsenals in the fort were stocked with daggers, swords and lances, bows and quivers full of arrows, shields and breastplates and chariots and harness for horses and elephants.

In besieging a fort the method adopted by the Tamils was first to cut open a wide passage through the jungle which enclosed the fort: then fill up the ditch to enable the army to approach the walls and finally scale the wall with ladders, or burst open the gates with the help of elephants trained to the work.

When the line of battle was drawn up, the elephants were placed first, the chariots and horsemen were ranged behind them, and the infantry occupied the rear. The ordinary foot soldiers carried in their left hand large bucklers made of ox-hide and in their right hand a lance or a battle-axe. The archers carried long bows in their left hand and quivers suspended at their backs. Both lancers and archers were armed with swords which were broad in the blade and about a yard long. The cavalry carried lighter arms and shorter bucklers than those supplied to the infantry. Those who rode on chariots or elephants were the generals who led the army and were invariably men of noble birth. They carried lances or swords, and shields adorned with gold and wore coats of mail. The war chariots were light cars raised on two low wheels with a railing of stout rattan round the stand, which afforded room for only, two men, the charioteer and the warrior. Each chariot was drawn by a pair of horses. Large and heavy chariots drawn by four or seven horses were used only in processions or festive occasions. When attacking an enemy, the archers discharged their arrows aiming at the elephants in the opposing army and at the generals who rode on them. If the men were skilful archers and sufficiently strong in number, the first shower of arrows compelled the enemies’ elephants to beat a retreat and threw their army into confusion: but if the elephants withstood the attack, the mounted soldiers threw their javelins at them and the infantry also attacked them with their long spears; and then engaged the enemy at close quarters fighting with their swords and battle axes. The elephants always formed the most formidable part of an army and hence, to cut down a soldier or any number of soldiers was not esteemed so great a feat of valour as to kill or disable an elephant. To fly, from the battlefield or to receive a wound on the back was considered a great disgrace.

The fighting men who belonged to the military caste among the Tamil were very loyal to their kings. “Thou Lord of the handsome chariot and troops of elephants,” says a bard to his chief, pointing to a young warrior, “share with this youth the toddy thou drinkest, for his father’s father gave up his life to save thy father’s father in a fierce fight: and this youth so full of valour, will throw himself between thee and thy foes, when they aim their lances against thee.”^[77] Even the women of the fighting classes were animated by the same martial spirit which the soldiers possessed. “Alas! how bold is she, the worthy matron of the warrior tribe!” exclaims a hard, “It was only the day before yesterday that her father cut down an elephant on the battle-field and fell bravely fighting with the foes, and yesterday her husband routed a whole array of elephants and was slaughtered on the same field, and yet to-day, when she heard the war drum, she seemed to be filled with joy and gave her only son a white cloth to wear, combed his hair and putting a lance into his hand, bade him go to the battle-field.”^[78] “The old mother with trembling frame and withered arms,” says another bard speaking of a woman of the military caste, “hearing that her son had fled from the battle-field, swore that she would cut off her breasts that nursed him, if he had really turned his back on the foe, and armed with a sword went to the battle-field and finding among the slain, the mangled body of her son, rejoiced more than she did when he was born.”^[79]

Warriors believed that their souls would ascend to the heaven reserved for heroes if they died in battle and this superstition had such a hold on them, that they seldom flinched from sacrificing their lives in the service of their kings. The kings too had the same superstitious belief and it is said that when severely wounded in battle, or about to die a natural death from old age or disease, they preferred to be laid on sacred grass spread by the Brahmins, and to be ripped open with a sword, so that they may die a warrior’s death.^[80]

The frequent skirmishes and fights with his neighbours in which each king was engaged, kept the soldiers in constant practice and fostered their martial spirit. The bards and minstrels who always formed part of the retinue of a king contributed in no small degree to create and strengthen a thirst for military glory. In times of peace they amused the king and his soldiers with tales of the heroic deeds of their ancestors, and in times of war they marched with the army, and with their war-songs stirred the soldiers and generals to emulate the valiant feats of their forefathers. There are four classes of bards mentioned in ancient Tamil poems—the Panar, Kooththar, Porunar and Viraliyar. The Panar were a very low caste and lived in the outskirts of the towns among the harlots, and when they wandered about from town to town, they were accompanied by their wives and children who carried with them their begging bowls and cooking utensils. The Kooththar were actors, who sang as well as acted plays, which were more of the character of a ballet than of a regular dramatic exhibition. The Porunar or war-bards were generally members of the suite of a chief or king. They carried a small, drum to which was tied a short stick with which they sounded the drum. “Each time I strike my drum with the short stick which is attached to it, your enemies tremble,” says the bard Kovur-kilar addressing the Chola king Nalank-Killi, fore when the war-bard sounds his drum it is generally the signal for an army to march.^[81] Female bards of this class were known as Viraliyar. It is these warbards that were the authors of a considerable portion of the literature of this ancient period.

We have a vivid picture of Madura in the verses left by the poets of this period which may well conclude this Chapter on the social life of the Tamils.^[82] “Long before dawn Brahmin students begin to recite Vedic hymns; musicians tune their Jutes and practise upon them; pastry cooks clean the floors of their shops.; and toddy sellers open their taverns for early customers.^[83] Minstrels go round, singing their morning blessings. In the temples, in the monasteries and in the palace of the Pandya conch shells boom, and big drums resound with deafening noise.^[84] The rays of the morning sun now gild the tops of the fort towers and reveal the proportions of the city. The main streets “are long and broad as rivers” and the buildings on either side of the main streets are, most of them, lofty mansions with upper stories, furnished with many windows.^[85] At every temple a flag is hoisted Over each liquor shop floats a merry steamer. Each trader’s warehouse is distinguished by a special banner. For every victory gained by the king’s forces gorgeous colours are unfurled. So many, and of such divers shapes and colours are these flags that the city looks as if it has been decked for a grand festival. Detachments of the king’s troops return to the city from their raids into enemies’ territories, bringing with them such booty as horses and elephants, and beautifully carved gates removed from fortresses which they had stormed. Other parties of soldiers return with herds of cattle, lifted at night, in the light of burning villages, and driven with their long spears, which now serve as goading sticks. Feudatory chiefs follow with their tributes to be presented to the king. Later, flower-sellers with trays full of loose blossoms and garlands suspended on their arms, and vendors of fragrant powders, of aracanuts and betel leaves, stroll in the streets or sit in the shade of the lofty buildings. Elderly women with tempting dainties and sweet smelling flowers, go from door to door, offering the articles for sale to the inmates of each house. The wealthy classes drive in chariots drawn by horses or ride on ambling steeds which are trained to special paces. The poor pedlars and petty dealers now run hither and thither, excited and terror-stricken, as a fierce elephant, which had burst its chains and killed its guards, rushes through the street, while men run before and behind it, blowing conch-shells to warn passengers off the road. Now and then the brawls of drunken soldiers also disturb the peace of the street. In the great market which is held in an extensive square, are exposed for sale ^[86] “carts, chariots and ornament chariot tops; coats of mail and metallic belts which cannot be cut; leathern sandals and fly wisks made of the white tail of the yak; strong spears and curved clubs; elephant goads and shields to protect the face of elephants ; various articles made of copper and of brass; saws and lathes and other tools; pretty garlands of flowers and fragrant pastes to be burned as incense or rubbed on the body, and other articles too many to be set forth.” In the jewellers street are sold diamonds of the four kinds then known to merchants, emeralds, rubies, sapphires, topaz, lapizlazuli, onyx stones, lustrous pearls and bright red coral beads. The gold merchants who dwelt in a separate street, sell the four varieties of that precious metal known as Satharupam, Kilichchirai, Adakam and Sambunatham. Cloths of various colours and patterns, made of cotton, wool or silk are exposed to view, folded and neatly arranged in rows, to the number of several hundreds, in each of the clothier’s shops. Sacks of pepper and the sixteen kinds of grains, such as paddy, millet, gram, peas, sesamum seeds, are heaped in the grain merchants’ street; and the brokers move to and fro with steel yards and measures in their hands, weighing or measureing the pepper and grains purchased by the people. In the Courts of Law preside learned Judges, who carefully avoid all anger and levity, and weigh the evidence and expound the law, without fear or favour.^[87] In the Ministers’ Courts are seated the sage councillors of the king, honored with the high title of Kavithi, who with a keen foresight prevent all that is evil and promote what is good for their prince and for the people over whom he rules.

On a spacious lawn enclosed by a wall stands the palace of the Pandya.^[88] The gateway is so high as to allow elephants to enter with banners erect on their backs. “The tower over the gateway” says the poet “is like a hill and the passage underneath, like a tunnel bored through the hill.” The folding gates are strongly rivetted with iron and provided with massive bolts and bars. They are tainted with vermillion, and on the door-posts are carved images of the guardian deities. In the courtyard which is covered with white sand, gambol “the long-haired yak and the short-legged swans.” In another part of the enclosure are the royal stables where superb steeds are ready for the king’s use. The stately apartments reserved for the use of the queen and her attendants, which no male but the king can approach, are decorated with flags of all the colours of the rainbow. The walls are of the hue of polished brass, and are at intervals plastered with white mortar which shines like silver. The beautiful creepers, painted on the walls, and the blue colour of the pillars blend to make a harmonious picture of the whole.

In the audience hall is seated the handsome Pandya. He wears only a single piece of clean starched cloth on his waist.^[89] Over it is clasped a jewelled belt. On his bare arms, above the elbow, are armlets of pure gold beautifully wrought. On his broad shoulders, fragrant with sandal paste, is a priceless necklace of brilliant pearls, besides a wreath of flowers. Around him stand a group of sturdy warriors, his trusted Captains, heroes who had captured many a fortress or slaughtered fierce elephants in battle, veteran chiefs, whose coats of mail have been battered and bruised in many a fight. Actors and minstrels and lute-players display their skill in the presence of the monarch and receive chariots and elephants as presents.

In the cool hours of the evening, the noblemen drive out in splendid chariots drawn by horses, each attended by a number of his footmen who run by the side of the chariot.^[90] They are clad in red coloured garments. Their swords hang by their sides, in scabbards ornamented with gold, and on their breasts are wreaths of flowers. Their ladies wearing sounding ankle rings and golden bracelets, appear on the high terraces, of their mansions, and their perfumes spread fragrance through the streets. The public walks are filled with a motley throng of chank-cutters, beadmakers, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, tailors, weavers, painters and dealers in perfumes and flowers, who move about the streets and dispose of the things they have brought to sale.^[91] The hotels and restaurants are all now crowded by visitors who feast upon luscious fruits such as the jack, mango or plantain and on sugar- candies, tender greens, edible yams, sweetened rice or savoury preparations of meat. Above the hum of voices is presently heard a flourish of trumpets and other instruments of music, which summons the people to their evening worship. Women wearing glittering jewels, accompanied by their husbands and children, carry incense and flowers to the Buddhist monasteries. In the retreats of the Brahmin ascetics, which are like excavated blocks of rocks, is heard the chant of Vedic hymns. Nigranthas crowd the cool cloisters of the monks of their sect, the walls of which are exceedingly high, and painted red, and are surrounded by pretty little flower gardens. Others visit the Brahminic temples and offer the evening sacrifices to the gods, “the chief of whom is He who is the creator of the five elements and who is armed with the battle-axe” (Siva).^[92]

As the shades of evening darken, lamps are lit in each house. Youths gaily attired, and harlots decked with jewels and flowers, walk the streets. Drunken soldiers go reeling, not minding even the sharp pointed caltrops strewn in the streets to keep off elephants. Young mothers escorted by their relations, proceed with lights, singing sweet melodies to the accompaniment of the lute and the tabor, and present boiled rice and other oblations to the goddess who is supposed to ensure the safe delivery of children, and with the priestess they partake of the offerings. In the suburbs, among the lower classes, at the bidding of soothsayers, festivals are held in honor of Muruga, and they dance hand in hand, wild and uncouth measures, with noisy songs and loud cries, while shrill cymbals and rattling drums keep up a discordant music.

Little by little the dancing and singing parties disperse. The petty traders close, their shops; the dealers in sweetmeats go to sleep in front of their stalls ; and silence reigns in the city. The night guards now patrol the streets. Armed with bows and arrows, unerring archers as they are, they go their rounds with fearless hearts and sleepless eyes, “not failing in their duty even in dark and rainy nights when the high streets overflow with water.” ^[93]

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1. Chilapp-athikâram iii. 126—Ib L v. 1. 157—Ibid. xxvi. 38. Mani-mekhalai i. l. 17.
2. Chilapp-athikâram, arum-patha urai on line 157, canto v.
3. Mathuraik-kânchi.
4. See foot-note (1) p. 169.
5. Chilapp-athikaram, v. 1. 49. Mathuraik-kânchi. 670, 671.
6. Nedu-nal-vâdai.
7. Chilapp-athikâram, xx. 1. 17.
8. Ibid. xxviii. II. 53-64.
9. Chilapp-athikâram, xxvi. 11. 3 and 4.
10. Maduraik-kâuchi, I 494.
11. Chilapp-thikãram, xx, II, 64 and 65
12. Nâladiyâr.
13. Ibid.
14. Chilapp-athikâram, xxiii. II. 130, 131.
15. Paddinap-pâlai, II 125 to 135.
16. perum-pan-arrup-padai, 1. 81.
17. Kalith-thokai, 78.
18. Aiukuru-nuru, ss. 1 to 10.
    Kalith-thokai, s. 103, 104, 105, 106.
19. Tholkâppiyam, III. s. 502.
    Kalith-thokal, s. 72. II. 17. to 20.
    Chilapp-athikâram, xiii. II. 71 to 82.
20. Tholkâppiyam III, s. 503.
21. Chilapp-athikaram, v. 1. 43. Pura-nânuru, s. 230, I. 13.
22. Thondai-manda1ap-padiiyam.
23. The Zemindars of Cheyar, Chunampet, &c., in the chingleput District.
24. Kalith-thokai, s. 105, I. 7.
25. Chilapp-adikâram, xvi. 1. 107.
26. Kalith-thokai,. 55, II. 18 and 1.
27. McCrindle’s Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Arrian, pp. 41 to 44 and 83 to 86.
28. Tholkâppiyam III., ss. 75, 193, 503, 510.
29. Tholkappiyam III., Chapter Marayipal.
30. Pura-nânuro, s, 189.
31. Ibid., s. 150.
32. Ibid., s. 274.
33. Tholkâppiyan, III, p. 470. Thamotharam Pilliai’s edition.
34. Perum-pânArrup-padai, I. 69. Chilapp-athikâram. xvi. I. 107.
35. Kalith-thokai, ss. 111 and 115.
36. Ibid., s. 18, 1.3.
37. Chilapp-athikâram, vi. I. 88.
38. Kuriuchippadpu, I. 102.
39. Porunar-arrup-padai, I. 39.
40. Kalith-thokai, ss. 32, 55.
41. Chilapp-athikaram, 1. 69. Ibid, viii. 21.
42. Ibid., iv. 53.
43. Ibid., xiv. 98, 99.
44. Kalith-thokai, s 85.
45. Chilapp-athikaram, vi. 76 to 108.
46. Ibid., i. 36, 37.
47. The Muppal or Kural.
48. Kalith-thokai, s. 76.
49. Ibid., s. 51.
50. In Tamil, the brothers of the father are called father, and not uncles.
51. Kalith-thokai, s. 39.
52. Ibid., s. 87.
53. Kalith-thokai, 188, 189 and 1
54. Chilapp-athikaram, xiv. II. 126-131.
55. Ibid, Canto i.
56. McCrindle’a Ancient India, Megasthenes and Arrian, p. 14. See also p. 202. “The women when seven years of old are of marriageable age.”
57. Chilapp-athikaram, Canto i.
58. Kalith-thokai.
59. Peram-Panarru, II. 99 to 362.
60. Mani-mekalai, III. 99-89
61. Ibid. xxvii. 260 and 261
62. Puram s 56 18
63. Kalith-thokai, ss. 57 and 136.
64. Chilapp-athikaram, viii. 31-32.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid, page 81.
68. Ibid.
    Chilapp.athikaram, xxvii. 245.
    Ibid, xxix.
    Akam, s. 17
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. Mani-mekalai, ii II. 18-31.
72. Chilapp-athikaram, canto iii.
73. Chillap-athikaram, vii. 1.
74. Ibid., v. 83.
75. Paddinap-palai, 11. 140-145.
76. Chilapp-athkaram, xv. 207-217.
77. Puram, 290.
78. Ibid, 279.
79. Ibid, 278.
80. Ibid, 93. Manimekalai, xxiii. 13-14.
81. Puram, 382.
82. Mânkudi Maruthanar’s Mathuraik-kânchi—Nakkirer’s Nedu-aal-vâdai and Ilanko-adikals’ Chilappathikâram.
83. Mathuraik-kânchi, line 654 and ff. Two very interesting articles On the “Ten Tamil Idylla” which appeared in the Christian College Magazine, from the pen of Mr. Sundaram Pillay, M.A., have been of much use to me, as they contain translations of extracts from the Nedu-nal-vâdi and Mathuraik-kânchi–C. C. Magazine Vol. VIII No. 9, page 661 and Vol. IX No. 2, page 114.
84. Chilapp-athikâram, XIV—7 to 14.
85. Mathuraik-kânchi, 357 and ff.
86. Chilapp-atikâram, XIV—168 to 211.
87. Mathuraik-kânchi, line 489 and ff.
88. Nedu-nal-vâdai, lines 76 to 114.
89. Mathuraik-kânchi, 716 to 752.
90. Mathuraik-kânchi, lines 431 and ff.
91. Ibid lines 511 and ff.
92. Mathuraik.kânchi-lines 453 and ff.
93. Ibid., lines 646—650.