Troja/Chapter 7
CHAPTER VII.
Other Explorations in the Troad.
§ I. The Ancient Town on the Bali Dagh.—I also most carefully explored with my architects the site of the small town situated on the mount just named, immediately to the south and south-east of the "tumulus of Priam," which I hold with Mr. Calvert to be the ancient city of Gergis, and which for nearly a century has had the undeserved honour of being considered as the real site of Troy. Nothing is visible above ground of the wall of
the lower city; but its northern part seems to be buried in a far extending low elevation of the ground. The site of the lower city is indicated by a number of house-foundations, which peep out from the ground, and by very numerous fragments of Hellenic pottery. The site is crowned at its south and south-eastern extremity by a small Acropolis, which is about 200 mètres long by 100 mètres broad, and these also are approximately the dimensions of the lower town. In this citadel the late Austrian Consul, J. G. von Hahn, of Syra, made some excavations in the spring of 1864, in company with the famous astronomer Dr. Julius Schmidt, and the architect Ernest Ziller of Athens. The altitude of the Acropolis is, according to Dr. Julius Schmidt's measurement, 142 m. They brought
to light in a number of places the walls, which clearly show two different epochs. Those of the first epoch are nearly vertical, and are built of large blocks, more or less unwrought, filled in with smaller ones (see the engravings Nos. 137,
138); those of the second epoch are built of regularly wrought stones, laid in regular courses, with the joints fitting exactly (see the engraving, No. 139). To the first and oldest epoch we may also attribute a wall of almost unwrought polygons, each about 0.60 m. long, filled in with small stones; to the second epoch a wall of well-joined stones, almost rectangular, which lie in horizontal courses like steps, each course projecting 0.10 m., from the lowest to the highest; also a wall, the lower part of which consists of well-wrought blocks, about 1 mètre long, the upper courses consisting of well-joined rustic quoins, that is to say, of square stones with an unwrought projecting square panel in the middle of the exterior side of each, which were intended to give to the masonry the character of great weight and solidity. Similar rustic quoins have been especially used in the palaces of the renaissance age in Italy. There are besides some walls of small stones, apparently also belonging to the second epoch.
I also found these two distinct epochs in all the trenches I dug and in all the shafts I sank, both in the Acropolis and in the lower city. In a trench, 25 m. long by 2.50 m. deep, which I dug in the middle of the little citadel, I found in the layer of the second epoch, which reached to a depth of 1.80 m. below the surface, several house-walls of small stones, and very numerous fragments of Hellenic pottery, for the most part of a very common monochrome red, green, or black; a great deal of it is not varnished at all; some cups or vases are only varnished black or red on the outside, the inside retaining the natural colour of the clay; others are left unpainted on the outside, the inside being ornamented with black bands; again, others have a black varnish with red bands on the outside, the inside being left unpainted. There also occur common plates, which are unpainted on the outside, but varnished red on the inside, with a very rude ornamentation of black bands. But there occur also a good number of fragments of well-made pottery, carefully varnished black both on the outside and the inside, and red on the bottom with two small concentric circles in the centre. There also occurs common fluted black pottery, which archaeologists cannot ascribe to a remoter time than about 200 B.C. The other Hellenic pottery is evidently of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries B.C. Every doubt that one may have felt regarding the great antiquity of the Hellenic pottery of the tumuli of Achilles and Patroclus will disappear on comparing it with this Bounarbashi pottery, which looks quite modern alongside of the other. Below this layer of Hellenic pottery was the stratum of the first epoch. 0.70 m. deep, with the remains of a house-wall built of small stones, and masses of that very coarse, heavy, glazed, grey or blackish wheel-made pottery, described above, which is so slightly baked that its whole fracture has a light grey colour.
In this trench I struck the natural rock at a depth of 2.50 m. In a second trench, dug on the east side of the Acropolis, I found the accumulation of débris to be only 1.50 m. deep, of which 0.60 m. belongs to the second epoch, and 0.90 m. to the first. I brought to light here the substructions of an edifice of neatly-wrought quadrangular blocks of conglomerate rock, and the same gray, black, red, or brown, glazed Hellenic pottery in the upper layer, the same very coarse, heavy, glazed gray or black wheel-made pottery in the lower. I obtained the same result in the trench I dug at the west end of the Acropolis, where the rock was reached at a depth of 2.50 m., as well as in the trench dug at the eastern extremity, where, besides the same kinds of pottery, two iron nails and a copper one were found in the upper layer; also in a shaft which I sank 3.50 m. deep in an ancient building in the Acropolis, and in other shafts which I sank in the lower city. Among the architectural curiosities of the latter I may mention a large and a small stone circle, which are contiguous. In a shaft sunk in the larger circle I found numerous fragments of Hellenic pottery, and below them the repeatedly-mentioned coarse gray wheel-made terra-cottas.
It deserves particular notice that, in all the trenches I dug and in all the shafts I sank. I found the layer of débris of the first epoch, with the coarse slightly baked gray wheel-made pottery, succeeded abruptly by the second layer, which contains the Hellenic pottery. Nowhere is there any trace of black earth between them, such as we should expect if, after the first settlement, the site had lain deserted for a number of years. We may conclude from this that the place, on being abandoned by the first settlers, was at once, or at least very soon, reoccupied by a Greek colony. Now, as we certainly found no vestige of Hellenic pottery which could claim an earlier date than the fifth century B.C., while the bulk is of the Macedonian time and later, we may with the greatest probability infer, that the coarse heavy gray or black wheel-made pottery was still in use among the first settlers when they abandoned the site in the fifth century B.C.. This we may, therefore, with the greatest probability, regard as its latest or minimum date. Regarding its earliest date I repeat that all the pottery, without exception, is wheel-made, whereas the Lydian pottery of Hissarlik, to which it has some resemblance, is nearly all hand-made; and if, therefore, we take as the latest date of the Lydian settlement the tenth century B.C., we are probably near the mark if we attribute the ancient pottery on the Bali Dagh to the period between the 5th and 9th centuries B.C.; and we must ascribe to the same time the so-called "tumulus of Priam," which I excavated, and in which none but this ancient pottery was found. This chronology is the more likely to be correct, as in the oldest layer of débris on the Bali Dagh there is no trace of the whorls, with or without an incised ornamentation, of which I collected at least twenty-two thousand in the five prehistoric settlements of Troy, and which are not wanting in the Lydian settlement. There were only found three unornamented whorls in the Hellenic layer of débris.
As (to my no small annoyance) I have for a long number of years been exhorted, verbally and by letter, by the adherents of the Troy-Bounarbashi theory, to excavate the marble wash-basins at the springs of Bounarbashi, I must assure the reader that nothing of the kind exists, and that my architects and I could discover at those springs only one block which had been worked by the hand of man. It is a Doric corona-block of white marble, on which the women now do their washing: the campanas (or guttae) are still visible on it; it must certainly have been brought thither from Ilium.
§ II. Eski Hissarlik.—I also explored the ruins of the ancient town called Eski Hissarlik (old fortress), which is situated on the rock on the eastern bank of the Scamander. opposite the Bali Dagh, and only separated from it by a few hundred yards.[1] The Acropolis, the walls of which are preserved almost in their entire circuit to a height of several mètres, and are only covered by the fallen upper parts of the wall, was situated on the top of the rock, at an altitude of 153 m.: whilst the lower town, which is marked by numerous house-foundations, extended on its northern and eastern slope. Immediately in front of the lower town is a tumulus of very small stones, which has lost its conical shape, and seems to have been explored by some traveller. As the Acropolis as well as the lower city are built in slopes, the earth and the remains of human industry have naturally been washed away by the rains, and it so happens that the accumulation of débris is here even much more insignificant than on the Bali Dagh; the bare rock peeps out in many places, and, wherever we excavated, the depth of the débris did not exceed from 0.50 m. to 0.70 m. We found there nothing else but the coarse heavy slightly-baked wheel-made pottery of the first epoch of the Bali Dagh. Both fortresses, Eski Hissarlik and Bali Dagh, which are only separated from each other by a few hundred yards, must—as their identical pottery proves—have existed simultaneously, probably from the 9th to the 5th centuries B.C.: they seem to have formed one whole, for they are built opposite each other on lofty heights rising almost perpendicularly from the river, and in this situation they completely dominated the road which leads from the valley of the Scamander into the interior of Asia Minor.
§ III. Excavations on the Fulu Dagh, or Mount Dedeh.—I also explored the ancient settlement on a hill called Fulu Dagh or Mount Dedeh,[2] about 1½ mile to the northeast of Eski Hissarlik, where I found, at a distance of about fifty mètres from each other, two concentric circles of fortification walls, of which the inner is sixty mètres in diameter; but all the walls have fallen and are shapeless heaps of ruins. I found there only some very rude unglazed and unpainted wheel-made pottery, which is thoroughly baked and has a dull-red brick colour. As before mentioned, a very similar rude red pottery occurs also in the débris of Ilium below the Macedonian stratum; we may, therefore, probably be right in attributing to it the same age which we found for the coarse, almost unbaked, wheel-made pottery of the Bali Dagh. This is the more likely, as I found among the Fulu Dagh terra-cottas a certain number of fragments of the latter kind. The altitude of the Fulu Dagh is 68 m.
§ IV. Ruins on the Kurshunlu Tepeh.—As before mentioned, I also explored the Kurshunlu Tepeh, which means "leaden hill," and is situated on the right bank of the Scamander, at a short distance from Mount Ida. At the foot of the Kurshunlu Tepeh lies the miserable Turkish village of Oba Kioi (altitude 244 mètres). In the walls of the village houses may be seen well-wrought marble slabs and fragments of Doric entablatures. The summit of Kurshunlu Tepeh has an altitude of 345 mètres, and is, therefore, 101 mètres higher than the village. The temperature of the air on the 2nd of July, both in the village and on the summit of the hill was 36° C. (96.8 F.) When in the beginning of the present century Dr. Clarke visited this hill, it was still covered with ruins of ancient edifices, though these building materials had then already for a long time past been the great quarry for Beiramich, where a mosque, the tomb of a Dervish, a bridge with three arches, and many large houses, had been built with them.[3] All the ruins which could be used for building purposes had disappeared when P. Barker Webb visited the hill in 1819.[4] Nevertheless, ancient remains may still be seen in many places. The first object which strikes the eye of the archaeologist is the ruin of the great wall, which is 2.80 m. thick, and of the same kind of masonry as the walls of Assos, for it has on both sides wedgelike blocks, between which, as well as in the interior, the space is filled up with small stones. On the summit are the foundations of a chamber, 3 m. long by 1.80 m. broad, the walls being 0.60 m. thick; but outside of it are large rudely-wrought blocks, between which and the foundations of the chamber the space is filled up with small stones. The position of the large blocks seems to indicate that the building had an oval form, and it may probably, therefore, have been a tower. In excavating this chamber, I found it to have an accumulation of débris only 0.30 m. deep. To the north-west of it is a spacious hollow in the rock, which perhaps marks the site of a large edifice, but here I struck the rock at a depth only from 0.15 m. to 0.20 m. To the north of this hollow are the foundation walls, 0.50 m. thick, of another edifice, which is 18 m. long by 11 broad. To the north-west of it are some remains of a smaller building; and again to the north of the latter, on a terrace about 12 m. below the summit, some ruins of larger edifices. Traces of several large buildings may also be seen on a terrace on the south side. I dug in these four latter places, as well as in twenty others where the formation of the soil held out any hope of finding a deeper accumulation of debris. But everywhere I struck the rock at a depth of from 0.15 m. to 0.30 m. Nevertheless, I found a good deal of pottery, the bulk of which consisted of well-baked, very common wheel-made, unpainted and unvarnished terra-cottas, very similar to those found on the Fulu Dagh. They were intermixed with rude, very slightly baked, wheel-made pottery of white clay, such as I had found in abundance in my excavations in Ithaca; also with slightly baked, coarse, light-yellow, gray, dark-blue, or black pottery, very similar to that of the first epoch at Gergis on the Bali Dagh and at Eski Hissarlik, for which, as well as for the coarse red pottery of Fulu Dagh, we had found the date of from the 9th to the 5th centuries B.C. The Hellenic pottery found on Kurshunlu Tepeh consisted of monochrome glazed red or black terra-cottas, of the Macedonian and Roman times. Of prehistoric or archaic Hellenic pottery no trace was found.
As Mount Kurshunlu Tepeh runs out to an obtuse point, it appears probable that the débris were washed down the slopes by the winter rains, and that this is the cause of the scanty vestiges of human industry on the declivity of the hill. But it is altogether inexplicable to me that the accumulation of débris should be as insignificant in the large hollow on the north-west side, and on the flat terraces, as it is everywhere else. Several travellers mention, on the east and west side of the hill, two circles of stones resembling cromlechs, for which they claim the remotest antiquity. I also saw these stone circles, but at once recognized in them the substructions of shepherds' huts, laid by modern Turkish herdsmen. The surface of the hill is strewn with fragments of very rude pottery, apparently of large jars.
The panorama the traveller enjoys from the summit of Kurshunlu Tepeh is beautiful beyond description. He sees at his feet the large valley of Beiramich, through which the Scamander meanders in innumerable curves; the valley being enclosed on all sides by the ridges of Ida, whose highest peaks, Garguissa (Gargarus) and Sarikis, tower majestically above it.
I also sank a shaft 2 mètres square into the artificial conical hill called Kutchek Tepeh (small hill) situated on the bank of the Scamander, about a mile to the south of Kurshunlu Tepeh; but I could not make much progress there on account of the enormous stones I encountered, for moving which I had no crowbars with me. Probably, like the tower in Ujek Tepeh, these blocks were intended to consolidate the mound. I found there nothing else but bones of animals, and very uninteresting fragments of tiles and of large jars.
§ V. Kurshunlu Tepch was the ancient Dardanié and Palaescepsis.—I had always thought that the Homeric Dardanié, as well as the ancient Scepsis (Palaescepsis), had both been on high plateaux near the summit of Mount Ida. But for weighty reasons, to be explained in my "Journey in the Troad," (Appendix I. to this work) it is certain that no human settlement is, or ever was, possible there. In fact Homer nowhere tells us that Dardanié was situated high up in the mountains; he tells us that it was situated on the ὑπορείαι Ιδης, that is to say, at the foot of Mount Ida;[5] and I am perfectly convinced that no place could have been meant here higher up than Kurshunlu Tepeh, for the city could only have been built on a spot whose environs were fertile enough to feed its inhabitants; but this is not the case with the highest villages on the mountain, namely, Oba Kioi[6] and Evjilar, the land of which hardly produces enough to feed their scanty population. Further, we must consider that Dardanié was situated in Dardania, the dominion of Aeneas, which, according to Strabo,[7] was limited to the small mountain slope, and extended in a southerly direction to the environs of Scepsis, and on the other side, to the north, as far as the Lycians about Zeleia. I therefore presume that Kurshunlu Tepeh was the original site of Dardanié, whose position Strabo[8] could not determine, and of which he only says that it was probably situated in Dardania. As moreover, according to the tradition preserved by Homer,[9] the inhabitants of Dardanié emigrated and built Ilios, I presume that the abandoned city on Kurshunlu Tepeh received other colonists, and was called Scepsis, because, as Strabo[10] thinks, it had a high position and was visible at a great distance. Just as, according to Homer, Dardanié was the residence of the ancient kings, so, according to Demetrius, as cited by Strabo,[11] the ancient Scepsis remained the residence of Aeneas. It was situated above Cebrené, namely, nearer to Ida, and was separated from it by the Scamander.[12] Strabo[13] proceeds to tell us that the inhabitants of Scepsis built, at a distance of 60 stadia from the ancient city, the new Scepsis, which still existed in his time, and was the birthplace of Demetrius. Now as the distance from Kurshunlu Tepeh to Beiramich is just two hours, and therefore about 60 stadia, and also as Beiramich is evidently the site of an ancient city, and as many coins of the later Scepsis are found there, I hold the two to be identical.
§ VI. The City of Cebrené.—I went from Kurshunlu Tepeh to explore the site of the ancient city of Cebrené on Mount Chalidagh (bush-mountain), so called, no doubt, on account of the underwood with which it is overgrown. A good road leads up by zigzags to the site of the lower city, the altitude of which, at the foot of the little Acropolis, is 515 mètres. This Acropolis is on a steep rock, its highest point having an altitude of 544 mètres. Some foundations of houses, and a cistern cut out in the rock, 6 m. long, 5.50 m. broad, and 4 m. deep, are all that can be seen in the Acropolis; there is no accumulation of débris, and no trace of walls; but in fact walls were not needed, as the rock falls off vertically on all sides but one. Even on the site of the lower city the accumulation of débris is but very insignificant; but here, at least, may be seen a great many foundations of ancient houses of large well-wrought stones. The walls, which are more than two miles in circumference, may be traced in their entire circuit on the uneven ground; they are built in exactly the same way as the walls of Assos, and five gates may be recognized in them. In the upper part of the lower city are the foundations of a vast edifice of large wrought quadrangular blocks, also many walls of large unwrought stones; but as these latter consist only of one course of stones, and merely serve to support the terraces, they cannot be called cyclopean walls.Having engaged in the village of Chalidagh Kioi ten workmen for 7 piastres (= 1½ francs) each, I selected on the plateau of the lower town fourteen places where the accumulation of débris appeared to be deepest, and began at once to excavate. But everywhere I struck the rock at the very insignificant depth of about 0.20 m., and only in a few places did I find an accumulation of débris 0.50 m. deep. The pottery I found is but very slightly baked, wheel-made, of a heavy gray or black, precisely identical with the pottery of the first epoch of Gergis on the Bali Dagh, but sparingly intermixed with rude thoroughly-baked red ware, such as was found on Fulu Dagh, and with monochrome glazed red or black Hellenic pottery of the Macedonian time. As all the excavations I made were on the perfectly flat plateau of the city, I am altogether at a loss to explain the insignificant accumulation of débris, for Cebrené is mentioned by Xenophon,[14] Scylax,[15] Stephanus Byzantinus;[16] and others, and, as the site is so well fortified by nature, there can hardly be a doubt that it was inhabited from a remote prehistoric period. But all we know of its history is, that Antigonus forced the inhabitants of Cebrené to settle in Alexandria Troas. Strabo[17] mentions the Thracian Cebrenes, by whom the city of Cebrené may have been founded. In two of the holes I dug I struck rock-hewn tombs, containing human skeletons, which had suffered so much from moisture that they crumbled away when brought in contact with the air. In one of the tombs there was nothing else; the other contained a pair of silver earrings, an iron tripod, a bronze or copper bowl, and some utensils of the same metal, which were too much broken for their form or use to be recognized. The date of these sepulchres I do not venture to fix even approximately.
I found in my excavations a number of bronze coins and a silver coin of Cebrené, having on one side a ram's head with the legend K E, on the other a head of Apollo. I bought of the villagers on the hill many other Cebrenian bronze coins, as well as two bronze coins of Scepsis. The latter have on one side a palm-tree with the legend ΣK, or a Dionysus standing on a panther and holding a bunch of grapes in his hand; on the other side a hippocampus or a Roman emperor's head. The usual size of the bronze coins of Cebrené is 0,009 mm., but there are a vast number which are only 0,005 mm. in diameter, less than a sixth part of the diameter of a penny. If we are to judge of the wealth of a people by the size and value of their coins,[18] the Cebrenians must have been a very poor people, and this seems also to be confirmed by the rudeness of their pottery. But, in spite of their extreme poverty, they were far more advanced in the art of coining than even the most civilized nations of our time; nay, the fineness of the representation of the Apollo-heads, even on their smallest bronze coins, has hardly ever yet been equalled even by the best American or English gold coins.
From the Acropolis of Cebrené the traveller sees, beyond. the heights which encompass the valley of Beiramich on the north side, the islands of Imbros and Samothrace, and to the left the vast Aegean Sea, from which the pyramidal Mount Athos rises majestically in the distance.
§ VII. Results of the Explorations in 1882.—Now to recapitulate the results of my five months' Trojan campaign of 1882: I have proved that in a remote antiquity there was in the plain of Troy a large city, destroyed of old by a fearful catastrophe, which had on the hill of Hissarlik only its Acropolis, with its temples and a few other large edifices, whilst its lower city extended in an easterly, southerly, and westerly direction, on the site of the later Ilium; and that, consequently, this city answers perfectly to the Homeric description of the site of sacred Ilios. I have further once more brought to naught the pretensions of the small city on the Bali Dagh behind Bounarbashi to be the site of Troy, inasmuch as I have shown that it belongs to a much later time, and that it cannot be separated from the strongly fortified city on Eski Hissarlik, which, at a distance of only a few hundred yards from it, crowns a lofty hill on the opposite bank of the Scamander, having been built simultaneously with it, and having been together with it the key to the road which leads through the valley of the Scamander into Asia Minor. I have further proved that the accumulation of ancient ruins and débris, which exceeds sixteen mètres in depth on the hill of Hissarlik, is quite insignificant on the Bali Dagh, as well as at Eski Hissarlik and on Mount Fulu Dagh, and amounts to nothing in the only two places in the Troad where the most ancient human settlements ought to have existed, and where the archaeologist might confidently expect to find a rich abundance of most ancient prehistoric ruins, namely, Kurshunlu Tepeh (Dardanié and Palaescepsis), and the Chalidagh (Cebrené). I have proved that the most ancient remains on all these sites, scanty as they are, belong most probably to the period between the ninth and the fifth centuries B.C., and that there is no trace among them of prehistoric pottery.
By my exploration of the "heroic tombs," I have further proved, that the tumulus which by Homer and the tradition of all antiquity had been attributed to Achilles, as well as one of the two tumuli ascribed to Antilochus and Patroclus, cannot claim a higher antiquity than the ninth century B.C., that is to say, the Homeric age; whereas the tumulus, to which tradition pointed as the tomb of Protesilaus, may with the very greatest probability be attributed to the age of the second city of Hissarlik, which perished in a direful calamity. My excavations in this tumulus have also confirmed the ancient tradition which brought the earlier inhabitants of Ilium from Europe and not from Asia. I have further discovered at the foot of Cape Sigeum a large tumulus, which was known in antiquity and was probably attributed by tradition to the hero Antilochus, but which has not come under the notice of any modern explorer and is indicated on no map of the Troad. My exploration in 1882 has also been of capital importance from an architectural point of view, for I have proved for the first time that, in the remote antiquity to which the ruins of Troy belong, not only the walls of the city, but even the walls of the large edifices were made of raw bricks, and were artificially baked in situ after having been completely built; and that the antae or parastades, which in later ages fulfilled only a technical purpose, were nothing else than a reminiscence or "survival" of the ancient wooden parastades, which had two important constructive purposes; for they served both to consolidate and secure the front faces of the lateral walls, and to render them capable of supporting the ponderous weight of the superincumbent cross-beams and the terraced roof.
My work at Troy is now ended for ever, after extending over more than the period of ten years, which has a fated connection with the legend of the city. How many tens of years a new controversy may rage around it, I leave to the critics: that is their work; mine is done. I content myself with recalling to the memory of my readers the words which I wrote from Hissarlik in the first year of my excavations[19] (Nov. 3, 1871):
"My expectations are extremely modest; I have no hope of finding plastic works of art. The single object of my excavations from the beginning was only to find Troy, whose site has been discussed by a hundred scholars in a hundred books, but which as yet no one has ever sought to bring to light by excavations. If I should not succeed in this, still I shall be perfectly contented, if by iny labours I succeed only in penetrating to the deepest darkness of prehistoric times, and enriching archaeology by the discovery of a few interesting features from the most ancient history of the great Hellenic race."
Such was my simple purpose in beginning the great work: how it has been performed I now leave finally to the judgment of candid readers and honest students: to those of another spirit—how provoked I leave to their own conscience—I hope, as I can well afford, henceforth to be indifferent.
- ↑ See the large Map of the Troad.
- ↑ See the small Map of the Troad, No. 140, and the large Map of the Troad.
- ↑ P. Barker Webb, Topographie de la Troade, p. 80.
- ↑ Ibid.
- ↑ Il. XX. 216–218:
κτίσσε δὲ Δαρδανίην· ἐπεὶ οὔπω Ιλιος ἰρήἐν πεδίῳ πεπόλιστο, πόλις μερόπων ἀνθρώπων,ἀλλ᾽ ἔθ' ὑπωρείας άκεον πολυπίδακος Ίδης.
- ↑ This Oba Kioi is not to be confounded with the village of the same name at the foot of Kurshunlu Tepeh. See the small Map of the Troad, No. 140.
- ↑ XIII. pp. 592, 593, 596.
- ↑ XIII. p. 592.
- ↑ Il. XX. 215–218.
- ↑ XIII. p. 607.
- ↑ XIII. p. 607.
- ↑ XIII. pp. 597, 607.
- ↑ XIII. 607.
- ↑ Hellenica, 3, 1, 17.
- ↑ Periplus, 96.
- ↑ S. v. Κεβρήμα.
- ↑ XIII. p. 590.
- ↑ I may remind the reader here that 1000 Chinese or 4000 Japanese zinc-coins have the value of one dollar.
- ↑ Troy and its Remains, p. 80.