United States Army Field Manual 7-93 Long-Range Surveillance Unit Operations/Chapter 4

by United States Department of Defense

CHAPTER 4 - SUPPORT

LRSUs lack the ability to support themselves in terms of combat support and combat service support. Mission analysis may dictate the requirement for combat support and combat service support from outside the company or detachment.

Section I. COMBAT SUPPORT

Combat support consists of operational assistance furnished to the LRSUs by other designated units. This support may become necessary at any time during the insertion, execution, or extraction phase of an LRS mission.

4-1. JOINT SERVICE SUPPORT

The LRSU requires extensive joint service support. The mission and the decision to execute that mission often depend on the amount and type of support available. This is particularly true during insertion and extraction.

a. Air Force. LRS teams require assistance from the Air Force for insertion, extraction, or close air support. Specially trained USAF crews are proficient in special operations, low-level flight. These crews can also operate using the adverse weather aerial delivery system. LRS teams are trained and equipped (VHF and UHF radios) to incorporate combat air support assets into their operations in support of target-acquisition missions or self-defense. LRS teams and USAF combat control teams may work together in a joint airborne advance party for specific operations, normally in support of forced entry operations.

(1) Employment. Combat control teams provide assistance and guidance to incoming airlift aircraft to the designated LZs or DZs. LRS teams accompany the combat control teams into the objective area. The LRS teams conduct reconnaissance and surveillance operations before the airborne force is deployed.

(a) The combat control teams' missions are to locate, identify, and mark the LZ or DZ and to establish and operate navigational aids and air traffic control communication. Combat control teams assist and guide airlift aircraft to the appropriate LZ or DZ. Combat control teams also remove obstacles and unexploded ordnance with demolitions.

(b) LRS teams surveil one or two named areas of interest in the objective area. The LRS teams observe and report to the ground force commander. One of the assigned named areas of interest is usually the main body LZ or DZ. The LRS team infiltrates with the combat control team and conducts reconnaissance and surveillance operations on the named areas of interests in the objective area. The team also observes and reports on the status of the LZ or DZ. All reports are sent to the ground force commander over long-range, man-portable communication systems.

(2) Deployment. The joint airborne advance party can be infiltrated by air, water, or land. The ground force commander develops plans to deploy the combat control teams and LRS teams during the planning stage of an airborne operation. To reduce the risk to the teams during deployment into the objective area, the airborne and airlift commanders determine the timing for insertion and method of delivery. The commanders consider the requirement for combat control teams to be fully operational in minimum time after reaching the LZ or DZ. This allows navigational, identification, and directional aids to be available for the maximum number of aircraft. Early deployment of the LRS teams is also critical so that detailed and accurate information can be assembled and passed to the ground force commander. Once notified of the impending deployment, LRS teams consider the following actions in planning for the mission.

(a) Perform static line or high-altitude, high-opening parachute operations to insert into the objective area.

(b) Conduct surveillance operations on assigned named areas of interest. The main assault force DZ is treated as a named area of interest.

(c) Conduct surveillance of enemy high-value targets.

(d) Conduct forward area limited observation program to provide limited weather and terrain information to the commander.

(e) Establish communication between friendly forces in the objective area and the task force commander at the home station. For each mission, the LRS team can establish any or all of the following communication nets: HF, VHF, and tactical satellite, if available.

(f) Perform other potential missions as directed by the commander to include: emplace remote sensors; conduct radiological or chemical surveys; direct fire missions for artillery, naval gunfire, or close air support; and conduct pathfinder or linkup operations, or both.

b. Navy and Marine Corps. Both the USN and the USMC have units equipped and trained to support ground forces. LRS operations may require the following support:

(1) Close air support from fixed- or rotary-wing attack aircraft against targets in or around the target area.

(2) Suppression of enemy air defense installations by close air support, artillery, or naval gunfire during insertion or extraction.

(3) Fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft support for insertion or extraction.

(4) Small craft support for amphibious infiltration or extraction.

4-2. ARMY AVIATION SUPPORT

Army aviation support consists of lift assets for insertion and extraction, or attack aircraft for close air support. LRS teams must be trained to incorporate both of these elements into their operations. Standard aviation support consists of one or two UH-60s and two AH-64s for insertion and extraction.

a. Lift Assets. All corps and divisions have organic lift assets available for insertion and extraction of LRS teams. Habitual working relationships and mutual understanding of each other's capabilities, limitations, and SOPs are critical to ensure consistent execution and promote confidence. Aircrews must be proficient at long-range, low-level, and limited visibility penetration into the enemy's rear area. Missions are normally tasked by the G3 Air but are coordinated directly with the appropriate lift unit by the LRS unit. During this coordination, referred to as the air mission brief, a representative from the headquarters, the LRS team, and the air crew should be present.

b. Attack Assets. See paragraph 4-3b(2).

4-3. FIRE SUPPORT

Surveillance units often depend on multiple sources for their fire support. Coordination of these fires is the responsibility of the LRSU commander and the G3 staff.

a. Field Artillery. Due to the nature of LRS operations, many missions will be out of the range of supporting field artillery fires. However, when such fires are available, they are planned for and integrated into the surveillance team mission. LRS teams and corps or divisional field artillery assets lack the command relationships and communication links associated with supported or supporting units. This is especially true of the communication link. Any attempt to integrate fires into the LRS plan must include a detailed communication plan, well-established target lists and priorities, and a simplified chain of command between the team and the firing battery. The following are appropriate missions for LRS teams to plan.

(1) Field artillery cannons and multiple rocket launchers can be planned to suppress enemy air defense artillery defenses as the team crosses the forward edge of the battle area during infiltration and exfiltration.

(2) Field artillery fires can contribute to the deception plan and add combat power to feints used during infiltration and exfiltration.

(3) Teams can engage high-payoff, stationary targets with accurate preplanned fires. The team must be able to observe the target and adjust the fires to be successful.

b. Aerial Fires. Due to the distance behind enemy lines at which most LRS operations are conducted, aerial fire support is the prime means of supporting those operations. It may be provided by either fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft.

(1) Fixed wing. Fixed-wing aerial fire support may come from Air Force, Navy, or Marine Corps units. The type of unit providing support, the aircraft, and the mix of ordnance carried, all affect the fire support planning and coordination process.

(a) The surveillance team can expect to receive fire support from a wide variety of fixed-wing aircraft. Some will be equipped with all-weather strike capability, enabling them to support the team during all conditions. Other aircraft are restricted to fair weather, daylight operations.

(b) If the enemy air defense artillery capability is minimal or can be degraded to a low level, the especially equipped and armed AC-130 aircraft may be used for fire support. A well-planned, well-executed suppression of enemy air defense program, coupled with electronic countermeasures directed against enemy air defense artillery units, normally allows the use of AC-130 aircraft.

(2) Rotary wing. The attack helicopter armed with a mix of antitank guided missiles, 2.75-inch rockets, a 20-mm cannon, and 40-mm grenade launchers is an accurate and responsive source of aerial fire support. The increased range and night capability of the AH-64 Apache make it an excellent asset to escort and assist the team as it crosses the forward edge of the battle area. Attack helicopters may be used to conduct feints and demonstrations to cover infiltration and exfiltration.

(a) When attack helicopters are used to support an LRS operation, indirect fires (normally long-range field artillery) are planned along entry and exit corridors to suppress enemy ground fires--especially air defense artillery.

(b) The team may pinpoint targets for the pilot by polar plot, grid coordinate, or shift from a known point. In the case of the AH-64 Apache, the team may use a laser designator. Friendly units mark their locations by panels, lights, mirrors, or infrared sources.

c. Naval Gunfire. During infiltration and exfiltration by amphibious means, the LRS team may receive fire support from naval gunfire. Communication between the LRS team and the naval vessel must be closely coordinated using air and naval gunfire liaison company teams.

4-4. AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY SUPPORT

Because LRS missions are conducted against second echelon and follow-on enemy forces, Army air defense artillery units are seldom used in direct support of these operations. However, during infiltration and exfiltration, air defense artillery units may support the team as it crosses the forward edge of the battle area.

4-5. ENGINEER SUPPORT

During retrograde operations or withdrawal of covering forces in defensive operations, surveillance teams may be used in a stay-behind mode. When the tactical situation permits, engineers may be used to prepare underground hide sites and surveillance sites. Topographical engineers may help select positions and may provide computer-generated topographical terrain base products for teams planning missions.

4-6. ELECTRONIC WARFARE SUPPORT

Depending on the nature of the mission and enemy capabilities, LRS missions may require support from electronic warfare units, especially during the infiltration phase. These electronic warfare operations disrupt, deceive, or destroy the enemy's command and control of his forces and weapons systems, while retaining friendly use of the electromagnetic spectrum. Also, electronic warfare supports deception operations conducted to mislead the enemy by manipulation, distortion, or falsification of indicators to get him to react in a manner against his interests. Active jamming and chaff dispersal can prevent enemy early warning radar from detecting team infiltration and from determining the route of the team. The electronic warfare transmissions make deception plans or feints appear real.

Section II. COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT

Combat service support consists of the logistical and administrative effort required to maintain long-range surveillance units. The LRSU may need the following combat service support from higher headquarters:

• Maintenance, supply, mess, medical, administration, finance, personnel, and chaplain.
• Packing, rigging, and loading of supplies and equipment for resupply operations.
• Transportation to relocate the unit.
• Infiltration and exfiltration support--air, ground, and water.

4-7. SOURCES

LRS units normally receive CSS from the parent MI organization to which they are assigned. Specific mission requirements dictate CSS channel and relationships with the corps or division assets.

4-8. SUPPLY

Supply operations involve determining requirements and requesting, acquiring, storing, and distributing items to fulfill these requirements. Required supplies are normally carried in by the teams to preclude compromise during resupply. When resupply of deployed surveillance teams is required, a drop point is established well away from the hide site and the surveillance site. The following paragraphs describe the classes of supply and how their supply operations affect LRS missions.

a. Class I. Special planning and coordination is required in Class I support of LRS. All elements of the unit must be considered. Base radio stations are ideally collocated with a unit or activity that can provide mess support and security services. The corps or division staff must ensure proper coordination before deploying a station in another unit's area. Support required for the base stations is addressed in the corps or division operation order, or in the corps or division tactical SOP.

(1) Emergency rations in the form of meals, ready-to-eat must be provided to deployed base stations to cover periods when mess support is unavailable.

(2) Deployed teams normally rely on the Class I they can carry into their area of operations. They may also carry freeze-dried rations. For long missions, the team must consider caching rations. Resupply should be the last resort.

b. Class II Through IX. These classes of supply are not required in great volume. For normal Army stocked items, the LRSC supply sergeant submits requests to the unit designated to provide support. The LRSD commander submits requests through the unit to which the LRSD is organic or attached. Ammunition requirements include ball ammunition; Claymore mine; and fragmentation, thermite, and smoke grenades.

4-9. RESUPPLY

Resupply operations for surveillance teams are normally planned and coordinated during the planning phase. Teams normally carry all required equipment and supplies into the area of operations. Some missions may require bulky supplies or heavy equipment that cannot be hand carried.

a. Batteries, food, and water are the supplies that usually cause the greatest concern. If the team is airlanded, these items can be quickly offloaded and cached for later use. If the team is inserted into the area of operations by parachute, aircraft can drop initial resupply loads just before the personnel drop.

b. If resupply is anticipated during an operation, one method is to airdrop by door bundles. The team prepares the bundles in advance so they can be quickly loaded and delivered. The following are the five methods of airdrop.

(1) Door loads. This load is pushed or skidded out of the aircraft door or tail ramp-opening. This method is suitable for free, low-velocity, or high-velocity drops. The load is limited in size and weight by the opening in the aircraft and by the personnel needed to eject the load.

(2) Wing loads. Loads are rigged in containers attached to the underside of the aircraft wings. The size and weight of the load are limited by the load-carrying capacity of the aircraft and by the type of container.

(3) Gravity. Loads are rigged within the aircraft. Load-restraining ties are released to let the load slide out of the cargo compartment of the aircraft, while flying with the nose slightly elevated.

(4) Extraction. Loads are rigged within the aircraft. A drogue parachute is used to pull out platform loads from the aircraft cargo compartment.

(5) External transport. Loads are hung from a hook clevis on a helicopter and dropped using the free, low-velocity, or high-velocity method.

c. Aircraft conducting airdrop resupply deep behind enemy lines must be careful to avoid enemy detection and antiaircraft fire. The safest way for the airdrop aircraft to penetrate enemy air defenses and remain undetected is often by flying very low. Parachute delivery systems can be used at low-level altitudes.

(1) The high-speed, low-level airdrop system consists of a single A-21 container specially rigged to withstand the shock of the parachute opening when air-dropped at high speed. This system can be used to deliver up to 600 pounds per container with a maximum of four containers per pass over the drop zone.

(2) Under certain circumstances, such as when the enemy has a strong low-level air defense artillery system, a high-altitude drop may be best. The aerial resupply and accompanying bundle system can automatically deliver a payload into a small area from high altitudes and substantial lateral distances. This system provides a steerable descent from up to 20,000 feet, at a drop speed of up to 180 knots. It will accommodate payloads up to 500 pounds.

(3) Regardless of the altitude of the parachute drop during aerial resupply operations, the situation frequently dictates delivery during poor visibility using adverse weather aerial delivery system. These system operations can be done safely and effectively in instrument meteorological conditions with a minimum 91-meter (300-foot) ceiling above ground level and a minimum visibility of 0.92 kilometer (0.424 nautical mile).

d. Teams can be resupplied using cache techniques. These caches may be emplaced by friendly units or local personnel supporting friendly units. (See TC 31-29 for detailed information on emplacing and recovering caches.)

4-10. TRANSPORTATION

LRSUs have limited organic transportation assets. They require frequent transportation support, primarily to move the surveillance teams and the operations section.

4-11. MAINTENANCE

Neither the LRSC nor LRSD have organizational maintenance personnel. The communications platoon or section of the LRSC or LRSD perform operator maintenance on communication and electronic equipment. Organizational and direct support maintenance is requested through the unit assigned to provide support.

4-12. MEDICAL

Organic medical support in an LRSU is limited to self and buddy aid. Due to the remote placement of teams, primary care is not readily available. LRS soldiers should attend combat lifesaver and emergency medical technician training.

a. Additional medical support is requested as needed. When possible, medical evacuation of team members is delayed until the whole team is evacuated from the area of operations. Wounded team members are sent directly to the nearest medical facility that can provide definitive care and treatment.

b. Combat stress is another medical aspect with which surveillance teams must cope. Due to the nature of LRS missions, the teams are subjected to stress in many ways. Some of these contributors are --

• Limited visibility (darkness, smoke, fog, rain, snow, ice, and glare). This requires the extended use of night vision goggles.
• Disrupted sleep cycles. Performance suffers from the disruption of the normal sleep schedule.
• Mental fatigue. This results from having to make decisions of serious consequences in too little time, with too little information, and while exposed to danger.
• Physical fatigue. This results from conducting physical activity excessive to current conditioning or at a strenuous level without rest.

c. Combat stress, however, is not solely a medical problem. It is also a command problem in terms of reduced performance and personnel lost from duty. It is a command responsibility to take actions to increase the individual team member's resistance to stress. This can be done by extensive training under simulated combat conditions and a high level of physical training. A good diet is also a major factor in coping with stress. This not only includes a balanced diet during combat operations, but also before going on missions. (See FM 26-2 for more information and Appendix K for information on night operations.)

4-13. MISCELLANEOUS SERVICES

Outside resources must also be used to provide the following services to LRSUs.

a. Rigger. The LRSC and LRSD have no organic rigger support. Support for parachute packing, maintenance, storage, and rigging of supplies and equipment for teams must be provided by the airdrop company of the supply and service battalion from corps or theater level.

b. Finance. All LRSUs are provided finance service by mobile pay teams dispatched from the area finance service center.

c. Religious. Religious service support for the LRSC is provided by the unit assigned to support them. In the LRSD, the chaplain is provided or requested through the unit to which the LRSD is assigned.