A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Strict Counterpoint

by William Smyth Rockstro

STRICT COUNTERPOINT (Lat. Contrapunctus proprius, vel severus; Ital. Contrappunto severo, Contrappunto alla Capella; Germ. Strenger Satz, Kapellstyl; Fr. Contrepoint'sévère). The art of writing, in Parts, for two or more Voices, without the employment of unprepared Discords.

The term is not very well chosen. The laws of Free Part-writing are quite as severe as those of the so-called Strict Style. But, the conventional application of the term 'strict' to the method which forbids the direct percussion of a Fundamental Dissonance, and 'free,' to that which permits it, has so long been generally accepted, that it would be impossible, now, to introduce a more exact form of terminology.

The laws of Strict Counterpoint are not open, like those of Harmony, to scientific discussion; for, Counterpoint is not a Science, but an Art. It is true that its most important rules, when tested by the principles of Natural Science, are found to coincide with them, in all essential particulars; and to this circumstance alone are they indebted for their unassailable position, and promise of future security. Their mathematical accuracy fails, however, to account for their universal acceptance as a code of artistic regulations. Their authority for this rests solely upon the praxis of the Great Masters of the Polyphonic Schools; which praxis was, from first to last, purely empirical. The refined taste, and true musical instinct, of Josquin des Prés, Willaert, Byrd, Tallis, Palestrina, and their contemporaries, rebelled against the hideous combinations demanded by the rules of Diaphonia, and Organum,^[1] and substituted for them the purest and most harmonious progressions that Art, aided by a cultivated ear, could produce; but, in their search for these, they were guided by no acoustic theory. They simply wrote what they felt: and because the instincts of true genius can never err, that which they felt was uniformly good and true and logical, and based unconsciously upon a foundation firm enough to stand the test of modern mathematical analysis. The leaders of the Monodic School^[2] rejected the teaching of these Great Masters; and, in their insane desire for progress, invented new forms of cacophony not a whit less rude than those practised by the Diaphonists of the 13th century. All Italy followed their baneful example; and, for a time, relapsed into chaos. But German Musicians, unwilling to destroy the old land-marks, retained, in their full force, the time-honoured laws relating to the use of Perfect and Imperfect Concords, Syncopations, and Notes of Regular and Irregular Transition, while they extended the system by promulgating new regulations for the government of Fundamental Discords introduced without the customary forms of Preparation; and, because such Discords had never before been sanctioned, this new method of Part-writing was called 'free,' though its rules were really more numerous than those of the older one.

It was not until some considerable time after the invention of printing, that the laws of Strict Counterpoint were given to the world in the form of a systematic code. Franchinus Gafurius, in his 'Practica Musica,' published at Milan in 1496, gave a tolerably intelligible epitome of certain rules, which, at that period, were supposed to embody all the information that it was necessary for the student to acquire. The 'Musice active Micrologus' of Ornitoparchus, printed at Leipzig in 1517, set forth the same laws in clearer language. The 'Dodecachordon' of Glareanus, and the 'Toscanello in Musica' of Pietro Aron, both printed at Venice in 1529, were illustrated by examples of great value to the tyro, whose labours were still farther assisted by the appearance of Zarlino's 'Institutioni armoniche' in 1558, and Zacconi's 'Prattica di Musica' in 1596. In 1597, Thomas Morley published his 'Plaine and easie introduction to Practicall Musicke' the earliest treatise of importance in the English language; and, in 1609, John Douland printed an English paraphrase of the 'Micrologus' of Ornitoparchus. These works set forth, with gradually increasing clearness, the regulations which, in the 15th century, had been transmitted from teacher to pupil by tradition only. The Compositions of the Great Polyphonic Masters formed a living commentary upon the collective rules; and, with an endless succession of such works within his reach, the student of the period ran little risk of being led astray. But when the line of Polyphonic Composers came to an end, the verbal treatises, no longer illustrated by living examples, lost so much of their value, that the rules were in danger of serious misconstruction, and would probably have been to a great extent forgotten, had not Fux, in his 'Gradus ad Parnassum,' published at Vienna in 1725, set them forth with a systematic clearness, which, exhausting the subject, left nothing more to be desired. This invaluable treatise, founded entirely on the practice of the Great Masters, played so important a part in the education of the three greatest Composers of the School of Vienna, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, that it is impossible to over-estimate its influence upon their method of Part-writing. So clear are its examples, and so reasonable its arguments, that it has formed the basis of all the best treatises of later date, of which two only—Albrechtsberger's 'Gründliche Anweisung zur Composition' (Leipzig, 1790), and Cherubim's 'Cours de Contrepoint et de la Fugue' (Paris, 1835), are of any real importance. These two, however, are especially valuable; not, indeed, as substitutes for the 'Gradus,' but as commentaries upon it. For Fux treats only of Strict Counterpoint, and writes all his examples in the old Ecclesiastical Modes; but Albrechtsberger deals both with the Strict, and the Free Styles, while Cherubim accommodates the laws of the Strict Style to the tonality of the modern Scale, with such consummate skill, that they bear all the appearance of having been originally enacted in connection with it; thus solving, for the modern student, a very difficult problem, which Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, were left to work out for themselves.

In most important particulars, these three great teachers follow the same general plan. All write their examples on Canti fermi, consisting entirely of Semibreves: all make their Canti fermi close by descending one Degree upon the Tonic, or the Final of the Mode: and all agree in dividing their exercises into five distinct classes, now known as the Five Orders of Counterpoint, the Rules for which may be thus epitomised:—

General Laws. The early Contrapuntists insist strongly upon the observance of the four following 'Cardinal Rules' (Regulæ cardinales).

I. One Perfect Concord may proceed to another, in Contrary, or Oblique Motion; but not in Similar Motion.

II. A Perfect Concord may proceed to an Imperfect Concord in all the three kinds of Motion.

III. An Imperfect Concord may proceed to a Perfect Concord in Contrary, or Oblique Motion; but not in Similar Motion.

IV. One Imperfect Concord may proceed to another in all the three kinds of Motion.

The intention of these Rules is, to prevent the possibility of Consecutive or Hidden Fifths, Octaves, and Unisons.

First Order (Note against note). One Semibreve must be written, in each Part, against each Semibreve in the Canto fermo. All progressions must be purely Diatonic; the employment of Chromatic Intervals being utterly prohibited, both in Harmony and in Melody, in this and all the succeeding Orders. No Discords of any kind are admissible. In two Parts, the only permitted Intervals are, the three Perfect, and the four Imperfect Concords: i.e. the Unison, Octave, and Perfect Fifth;^[3] and the Major and Minor Thirds and Sixths. In three or more Parts, the only Harmonies permitted are, the Major and Minor Common Chords, and the Chord of the Sixth. The Chord of the 6-4 and the Augmented and Diminished Triads are prohibited; but the First Inversion of the Diminished Triad is admissible, because none of its Intervals are in Dissonance with the Bass. In three Parts, each Chord should, if possible, consist of a Root, Third, and Fifth; or, a Bass-note, Third, and Sixth. In four Parts, the Octave should be added. But, in cases of necessity, any Interval may be doubled, or omitted. The separate Parts may proceed, either in Conjunct Movement, by Major or Minor Seconds; or, disjunctly, by leaps of a Major or Minor Third, a Perfect Fourth, a Perfect Fifth, a Minor Sixth, or an Octave. All other leaps, including that of the Major Sixth, are absolutely prohibited. The first Semibreve, in Two-Part Counterpoint, must be accompanied by a Perfect Concord: in three or more Parts, one Part at least must form a Perfect Concord with the Bass. In the remaining Semibreves, Imperfect Concords are to be preferred, in two Parts.

In this, and all other Orders of Counterpoint, the Parts may cross each other, to any extent.

Consecutive Fifths, Octaves, and Unisons, in Similar Motion, are forbidden, in any number of Parts. In four or more Parts, Consecutive Fifths are permitted, in Contrary Motion, but only as a last resource.^[4] This Licence, however, does not extend to Consecutive Octaves, which were far more carefully avoided, by the Great Masters, than Consecutive Fifths, even in Contrary Motion.

But Consecutive Fifths and Octaves are only forbidden when they occur between the same two Parts. When produced by different Parts, or, by making the Parts cross each other, they are perfectly lawful.^[5]

Hidden Fifths and Octaves are as strictly forbidden, in two Parts, as real Consecutives; but, in four or more Parts, as at (d), in Ex. 3, the Great Masters never troubled themselves to avoid them.^[6]

The False Relation of the Tritonus (Augmented Fourth) is strictly forbidden, in two Parts; but permitted, in three, or more. That of the Octave is forbidden, even in eight Parts.

In two Parts, the Unison is forbidden, except in the first and last notes. The Octave is permitted, in Oblique Motion; and, in Contrary Motion, also, provided it be approached by separation i.e. by the mutual divergence of the Parts which produce it; as at (c), in Ex. 2. Its employment by approximation—i.e. by the convergence of the Parts, as at (b) in Ex. 2—is only permitted in the final Cadence.^[7]

In Two-Part Counterpoint of this Order, it is forbidden to take more than three Thirds, or Sixths, in succession, unless the Parts be made to cross each other.

The final Cadence is formed, either by a Major Sixth followed by an Octave, as at (c), in Ex. 2; or, by a Minor Third, followed by an Octave, or an Unison, as at (a) in Ex. 1. In two Parts, these Intervals will complete the necessary formula. In more than two Parts, the same intervals must be given to the Canto fermo, and one other Part, while the other Parts fill up the Harmony, in accordance with the laws already laid down, as at (e), in Ex. 3. If the last Chord be not naturally Major, it must be made so, by an accidental Sharp, or Natural.^[8]

Second Order (Two notes against one). In this Order, two Minims must be written, in one of the Parts, against each Semibreve in the Canto fermo, except the last, unless the Exercise should be in Triple Time, in which case, three Minims must be written against each Semibreve.^[9] The other Parts must all move in Semibreves.

In the Part which contains the Minims, the same note may not be struck twice in succession.

The first bar should begin with a Minim Rest, followed by a Minim, in Perfect Concord.

In the remaining bars, the first Minim must always be a Concord, Perfect, or Imperfect.

The second Minim may be either a Concord, or a Discord. If a Concord, it may proceed either in Conjunct or Disjunct Movement.—Ex. 4 (g). If a Discord, it must be both approached, and quitted, in Conjunct Movement, and lie between two Concords. In other words, it must be treated as a Passing Note.—Ex. 4 (f).

The Part which contains the Minims is not permitted to make the leap of a Major Sixth under any circumstances; and not even that of a Minor Sixth, except as a last resource, in cases of extreme difficulty.^[10] Consecutive Fifths and Octaves between the first Minims of two successive bars, are strictly forbidden. Between the second Minims they are tolerated, but only for the purpose of escaping from a great difficulty.

Except in the first and last bars, the Unison is forbidden, on the Thesis, or accented part of the measure; but permitted, on the Arsis, or unaccented beat. The Octave on the Arsis may be used, with discretion; but the Octave on the Thesis (Ital. Ottava battuta; Germ. Streich-Octav) is only permitted, when approached, as in the First Order, either in Oblique Motion, or by separation. Its employment by approximation, as in Ex. 4, bar 5, is permitted only in the Final Cadence.^[11]

In these, and all other cases, the first Minims of the bar are subject to the same laws as the Semibreves of the First Order; and the more closely these laws are observed, the better the Counterpoint will be. If the elimination of the second Minim in every bar, except the first, and the last but one, should produce good Counterpoint of the First Order, no stronger proof of excellence can be desired.

The Cadence is treated like that of the First Order; one of the sounds necessary to form the characteristic Intervals being assigned to the Canto fermo, and the other, either to the Part which contains the Minims—Ex. 4 (h); Ex. 5 (i)—or to some other Part written in Semibreves.

Third Order (Four notes against one). In this Order, four Crotchets must be written, in one of the Parts, against each Semibreve in the Canto fermo, except the last; the other Parts moving in Semibreves.

The first bar should begin with a Crotchet Rest, followed by three Crotchets, the first of which must form a Perfect Concord with the Canto fermo.

The first Crotchet, in the succeeding bars, is subject to the same laws as the first Minim in the Second Order. The three remaining Crotchets may form either Concords or Discords, provided that, in the latter case, they proceed in Conjunct Movement, and lie between two Concords; in which respect they must be treated like the unaccented Minims in the Second Order.

When the second Crotchet forms a Discord with the Canto fermo, in a descending passage, it may, by Licence, fall a Third, and then ascend to the necessary Concord, as at (h) in Ex. 6, and (l) in Ex. 7. This very beautiful progression, though forbidden by Cherubini, is sanctioned by the universal practice of the Great Masters of the 16th century.'^[12]

The employment of the Tritonus, or the False Fifth, as intervals of Melody, is forbidden, not only by leap, but even when the intervening sounds are filled in; thus, the progressions, F, G, A, B, and B, C, D, E, F, are as contrary to rule as F, B, or B, F. This law, however, is only enforced when the dissonant sounds form the limits of the passage; F, G, A, B, C, is therefore perfectly lawful. Consecutive Fifths, Octaves, and Unisons, are forbidden, between the first and third Crotchets in the bar; between the first or third Crotchets of two successive bars; and, of course, between the last Crotchet of one bar, and the first of the next.

The Cadence will be formed by the Canto fermo either in conjunction with the Part containing the Crotchets, or with one of the Parts written in Semibreves, on the same principle as that recommended in the Second Order. Ex. 6 (k); Ex. 7 (m).

Fourth Order (with Syncopations). In this Order, one Part must be written in syncopated Notes; while the others accompany the Canto fermo in Semibreves.

The first bar must begin with a Minim Rest, followed by a Minim, in Perfect Concord with the Canto fermo; which Minim must be tied to the first Minim in the following bar, which must always form a Concord with the lowest Part. Ex. 8 (r).

The remaining bars (except the last) will each contain two Minims; the first of which must be tied to the second Minim of the preceding bar; and the second, to the first Minim of the bar which follows. The tied Minims, now known as Syncopations, were formerly called Ligatures.

The second, or unaccented Minim, must always form a Concord with the Canto fermo.

The tied, or accented Minim, may form either a Concord, or a Discord, with the Canto fermo. In the first case—Ex. 8 (o); Ex. 9 (s)—it may proceed upwards or downwards, either in Conjunct, or Disjunct Movement. In the second—Ex. 8 (n); Ex. 9 (r)—it must descend one degree upon a Concord, which forms its natural resolution, and may also serve to prepare a Discord in the succeeding bar, as at (p) in Ex. 8. In no case but that of the Ninth is it allowable to let the note into which the Discord is about to resolve be heard simultaneously with the Discord itself in any other Part than the Bass.

Consecutive Fifths, Octaves, and Unisons, are strictly forbidden, between the unaccented Minims of two successive bars, which must here be guarded as strictly as the accented Minims of the Second Order. Indeed, the most severe test that can be applied to this kind of Counterpoint is, the excision of the first Minim of every bar. If this operation should produce good Counterpoint of the First Order, nothing more can be desired.

All the Diatonic Discords may be used by Syncopation. But, a succession of Ninths, resolving into Octaves, or of Sixths, followed by Fifths, is forbidden; because, in these cases, the excision of the accented Minims would produce progressions of real Fifths and Octaves.

The Cadence, formed always by the Canto fermo and the Part containing the Syncopations, will consist, either of a suspended Seventh, resolving into a Major Sixth, and followed by an Octave—Ex. 8 (q); Ex. 9 (t); or, should the Canto fermo be placed above the Syncopations, of a suspended Second, resolving into a Minor Third, and followed by an Unison, or Octave. This Cadence was called, by the Old Masters, the Diminished Cadence; and was used at the close of almost every Polyphonic Composition.

Fifth Order (Florid Counterpoint). In this Order, one Part will contain a judicious mixture of all the preceding Orders; while the other Parts accompany the Canto fermo in consonant Semibreves.

Dotted notes, though forbidden in all other Orders, may here be introduced into the Florid Part, with excellent effect; and Quavers also, if used sparingly, and with discretion, as at Ex. 10 (v). Tied notes are permitted, on condition that the length of the second note does not exceed that of the first. In modern passages, it is sometimes convenient to use a tied note instead of a dotted one.

By a Licence, analogous to that mentioned with regard to the Third Order, a syncopated Discord, suspended by a tied Crotchet, may descend a Third, or a Fifth, and afterwards re-ascend to its Resolution,^[13] as at (x), in Ex. 11; or, it may ascend a Fourth, or a Second, and then re-descend to the necessary Concord, as at (v) in Ex. 10.

A Minim, preceded, in the same bar, by two Crotchets, should always be tied to a Minim, or Crotchet, in the succeeding bar.^[14] Ex. 10 (u).

The Diminished Cadence—Ex. 10 (w)—is used in this Order, as well as in the Fourth, with many graceful modifications, rendered possible, as in Ex. 11 (z), by the employment of dotted, and tied notes.^[15] These modifications form part of a long list of Licences, peculiar to the Fifth Order, and greatly conducing to its beauty, as in Ex. 11 (y) though, unfortunately, too numerous for detailed notice in our present article.

^[16]

Students, who have mastered all the difficulties of the Five Orders, are recommended, by Fux, and his successors, to employ two or more Orders simultaneously, in place of filling in the free parts with Semibreves: and to follow up this exercise by employing the Fifth Order in all the Parts except that which contains the Canto fermo.

It will be readily understood that the Rules we have here endeavoured to epitomise form but a very small proportion of those laid down by Fux, and his successors, for the student's guidance; more especially with regard to the Five Orders of Counterpoint in two Parts, the laws of which are excessively severe. We have, in fact, confined ourselves, for the most part, to the regulations which serve most clearly to distinguish the Strict Style of the 16th century from the Free Part-writing of the 18th and 19th. The true value of these Rules lies in the unvarying purity of the Harmony produced by their observance. Obedience to their provisions renders harshness of effect impossible. It was for this reason that they were so diligently studied by the Great Masters of the School of Vienna; and, after them, by Mendelssohn, and the Composers of the later period. It is true, that these Composers, one and all, have written exclusively in the Free Style. But, we have already explained that the laws of the Free Style are not antagonistic to those of Strict Counterpoint. In their treatment of Consonant Harmonies, of Suspensions, and of Passing Notes, the laws of the two Styles, as set forth in the works of the great classical writers, are absolutely identical. It is only when dealing with Chromatic Progressions, Appoggiaturas, and Unprepared Discords generally, that the Free Style supplements the older code with new enactments. And, since these new enactments concern progressions altogether unknown to the Contrapuntists of the 16th century, they cannot be fairly said to oppose the earlier system. Except when entering upon new ground, they neither increase nor diminish the severity of the antient method. On the contrary, it is a well-known fact that the greatest writers in the Free Style, and the most fearless, are those who have worked hardest at Strict Counterpoint. Hence, Beethoven's bon mot concerning the necessity for learning rules in order that one might know how to break them; so often mis-quoted in defence of those who break them through ignorance. Hence, Mendelssohn's microscopic attention to the minutest details, in the lessons he gave in Free Part-writing; and Hauptmann's determined insistance on rules, which, though mentioned by Fux, are unnoticed by Cherubini. All these accomplished Musicians used Strict Counterpoint as a stepping-stone to the Free Style: and, if we would know how much the process profited them, we have only to examine Mozart's 'Zauberflöte,' Beethoven's 7th Symphony, and Mendelssohn's 'St. Paul.'

[ W. S. R. ]

1. See Organum; Polyphonia.
2. See Monodia
3. In Counterpoint, the Perfect Fourth, when used alone, or reckoned from the Bass note, is held to be, and treated as, a Discord. When it occurs among the upper notes of a Chord, the Bass taking no share in its formation, it is treated as a Perfect Concord. The same rule applies to the Augmented Fourth (Tritonus), and the Diminished Fifth (Quinta falsa).
4. It will be seen, that, in this particular, the Strict Style is more indulgent than the Free. Palestrina constantly availed himself of the Licence; especially when writing for Equal Voices.
5. See vol. i. p. 736.
6. See Hidden Fifths and Octaves, vol. 1. p. 735.
7. The earlier writers on Counterpoint insist very strongly on the observance of this Rule; and extend its action, with even greater severity, to the Unison, in the few cases in which the employment of this Interval is permitted. Fux (pp. 53, 54) is inclined to treat it with indulgence, provided the converging Parts proceed in Conjunct Movement; but only on this condition. Albrechtsberger forbids the progression in two Parts; but sanctions it, in three. Cherubini makes no mention of the Rule.
8. For examples of Cadences in all the Ecclesiastical Modes, see vol. ii. pp. 413, 414.
9. See Fux, p. 63.
10. See Cherubini, p. 14b of Mrs. Cowden Clarke's translation. (Novello & Co.)
11. See footnote 5. p. 741.
12. Fux, p. 65.
13. See Fux, p. 76.
14. Ib. p. 80.
15. Ib. p. 76.
16. Licence. Fifths saved by a tied Crotchet, on the authority of Palestrina. At bar 5, the Tenor crosses below the Bass.